How Often are ADAS Used? Results of a Car Drivers’ Survey
MARIAROSARIA PICONE*
Department of Engineering,
University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”,
via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa (Caserta),
ITALY
ARCANGELO ERRICHIELLO
Department of Engineering,
University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”,
via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa (Caserta),
ITALY
ARMANDO CARTENÌ
Department of Engineering,
University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”,
via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa (Caserta),
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4181-6631
ITALY
*Corresponding Author
Abstract: - Safety in automotive systems has been a major concern since the early days of vehicles on the road.
In recent decades, automakers worked hard to integrate Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) into
their vehicles. The aim of the paper is twofold: i) investigate the ADAS evolution over time, a trend that has
made current cars safer and paved the way for self-driving mobility; ii) investigate the users’ propensity in
using steering wheel controls which, as known, promise an increase in road safety. To do this, both a desk
analysis and a mobility survey among Italian car drivers were performed. Survey results allowed us to
investigate both the presence of these systems on board the vehicles currently used and their frequency of
usage. Precisely, 60% of the respondents currently have the steering wheel controls on board their car to listen
to music and/or answer calls. Of those who have these devices, about 60% (68%) of the respondents frequently
(high) use steering wheel controls to answer calls (to listen to music). 82% (74%) of the drivers stated that these
devices to answer calls (to listen to music) significantly improve both road safety and driving stress, (improve
the overall travel experience). Furthermore, it is interesting to observe that steering wheel controls to answer
calls are perceived as more useful than those to listen to music (about 8 percentage points more). Finally,
among those who do not have steering wheel controls, 89% of the respondents believed they would like to have
them in their next car.
Key-Words: - Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS); travel experience; Self-driving vehicles;
driverless; Autonomous Vehicles (Avs); Automated Driving (AD); road safety; transportation
planning
Received: September 8, 2022. Revised: April 21, 2023. Accepted: May 8, 2023. Published: May 29, 2023.
1 Introduction
Safety in automotive systems has been a major
concern since the early days of on road vehicles.
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) have
become a salient feature for safety in modern
vehicles. State of the art ADAS are primarily vision
based, but light detection and ranging (lidar), radio
detection and ranging (radar), and other advanced-
sensing technologies are also becoming popular, [1].
Recently, ADAS are also key technologies to
develop autonomous vehicles (AVs), [2]. The
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Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) defines six
different levels of driving automation for road
vehicles, [3]. A vehicle is categorized as level zero
if no systems are assisting the driver in handling
steering and acceleration/deceleration and
everything is handled manually by the driver. Level
one vehicles consist of systems assisting the driver
in handling either steering or
acceleration/deceleration under certain cases with
human driver input. Technologies in level two
vehicles handle both steering and
acceleration/deceleration under certain
environments with human driver input. In general,
in lower-level vehicles (levels zero to two), the
driver monitors the driving environment. From level
3 onwards the role of the human driver becomes
increasingly marginal and driving functions are no
longer attributable to ADAS alone, as it is artificial
intelligence (AI) that takes over, understands the
environment, and makes the car move.
Artificial intelligence defines the transition from
automated vehicles to autonomous vehicles.
Automated vehicles are equipped with ADAS
systems only, autonomous vehicles in addition to
ADAS, exploit Artificial Intelligence to process
signals/data received from a combination of sensors,
cameras, radars, lidars, lasers, GPS trackers (and
many others), to understand the environment and
offer a response to the challenges, thus ensuring the
movement of the vehicle.
According to [4], AI is just "the science and
engineering of making intelligent machines". In
technical terms, Artificial Intelligence is a branch of
information technology that allows the
programming and design of both hardware and
software systems that make it possible to equip
machines with certain characteristics that are
considered typically human such as example, visual
perceptions, space-temporal and decisional, [5], [6],
[7], [8].
“AI enables technical systems to perceive their
environment, deal with what they perceive, solve
problems and act to achieve a specific goal. The
computer receives data – already prepared or
gathered through its own sensors such as a camera
– processes it and responds. AI systems are capable
of adapting their behaviour to a certain degree by
analysing the effects of previous actions and
working autonomously”, [9].
Therefore, the advancement of artificial
intelligence has truly stimulated the development
and deployment of autonomous vehicles in the
transportation industry. Fueled by big data from
various sensing devices and advanced computing
resources, AI has become an essential component of
AVs for perceiving the surrounding environment
and making appropriate decisions in motion, [10].
Therefore, while ADAS only support the driver with
their driving task, and endeavor to avert accidents
by intervening, when required, improving road
safety; autonomous vehicles take over specific
portions of the dynamic driving task, which are
ordinarily executed by human drivers for at least
part of the trip.
While autonomous vehicles are in the
experimental stage, ADAS are present and are
increasingly common in current vehicles. Their role
in improving road safety is recognized throughout
Europe to such an extent that the Regulation (EU)
2019/2144 of the European Parliament and of the
Council, dated November 27, 2019, stipulates that
starting from 2024, the registration of category A
and B vehicles that do not have advanced safety
systems on board, such as intelligent speed
adaptation, interface for alcohol lock installation,
driver inattention, and fatigue warning, advanced
driver distraction warning, emergency stop signal,
reversing detection, and event data recorder, will be
prohibited.
Starting from these considerations, the aim of
the paper was twofold: i) investigate the ADAS
evolution over time, a trend that has made current
cars safer and paved the way for self-driving
mobility; ii) investigate the users’ propensity in
using steering wheel controls which, as known,
promise an increase in road safety.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2
reports the evolution of the main advanced driver
assistance systems (ADAS) over time; Section 3
reports the results of a survey investigating how
often the ADAS are used among Italian drivers.
Finally, Section 4 reports the main conclusions,
limitations, and future research directions.
2 Evolution of Advanced Driver
Assistance Systems (ADAS) Over
Time: Towards Self-Driving Vehicles
Modern vehicles are equipped with a variety of
systems and accessories, whose number has been
increasing with the introduction of each new model.
Some of these features are designed to attract the
attention of potential buyers or to improve comfort.
Examples of such systems include advanced lighting
technology, high-end infotainment systems, various
driving modes, pre-setting of seats and rear-view
mirrors, and so on. Others are specifically designed
to improve driver and passenger safety and are
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generally referred to as ADAS systems (Advanced
Driver Assistance System). Among the most
popular ones, there are Automatic Emergency
Braking (AEB), reverse cameras, frontal sensing
systems, 360° cameras (surround-view), and many
others.
In the space of a century, these driver assistance
systems have evolved considerably, from simple
devices for mechanical cruise control to solutions
capable of enabling the construction of vehicles that
are increasingly “software defined” that make
extensive use of augmented and virtual reality and
aim at fully autonomous driving.
To define the evolution of the main ADAS over
time an ad hoc methodology was performed: i) a
web-based desk search was conducted, identifying
articles and websites in which the keywords, such
as, “advanced driver assistance systems”, "ADAS",
“road safety devices and/or systems” appeared in
the title and/or text; ii) a careful analysis of the
sources was conducted to identify the entry-level
year of the ADAS and its main characteristics; iii)
the single technology (ADAS) were included in a
timeline Fig. 1 and discussed in the body of the text.
Probably the forerunner of driver assistance
systems was the Speedostat, [11]. This was the first
design of a speed control system, [12]. Patented on
22 August 1950, [13], it consisted of a speed
selector on the dashboard connected to a mechanical
adjustment mechanism derived from the vehicle's
drive shaft. Actuated by the controller, a vacuum
pump was responsible for pushing up the accelerator
pedal, providing haptic feedback to the driver to
signal him to slow down. Chrysler automobile was
the first automaker to adopt the Speedostat in 1958,
[11], [13].
Shortly after Speedostat had been successfully
implemented on production vehicles, another
technological revolution was at the doorstep: in
1971 was invented and patented the first electronic
cruise control, which was defined as 'speed control
for motor vehicles', [14]. This new electronic speed
control could manage, and this was an absolute
novelty, the speed of the vehicle in a ‘closed loop’,
even uphill and downhill. This invention, known as
cruise control, changed vehicles forever. The history
of ABS (Anti-lock Braking Systems) also offers
interesting insights. Similar to cruise control, ABS
was initially conceived as a mechanical system. The
first production vehicle equipped with an electronic
ABS system was the 1971 Chrysler Imperial model,
[15]. The Bendix company patented it in 1970 and
Chrysler named this system 'Sure Brake', commonly
known as 'anti-skid', [16]. ABS has thus become a
standard feature for all car manufacturers and
almost all vehicles now on the roads adopt it. The
first known example of a reversing camera, mounted
on the Centurion model made by Buick, dates back
to 1956, [17].
This concept car had a rear-view camera whose
images were shown on a television screen in the
passenger compartment that was used in place of the
rear-view mirror. Although it was certainly a
brilliant idea, the decidedly high cost was the
element that most likely held back its widespread
diffusion. In fact, it is thought that this system was
never fully functional.
We have to wait until 1972 to see another car
equipped with a camera: in this case, it was an
experimental Safety Car made by Volvo (VESC –
Volvo Experimental Safety Car) to test a range of
new safety features, [18]. Toyota was the first OEM
(Original Equipment Manufacturer) to equip a
vehicle intended for series production with a
reversing camera: this was the Soarer Limited
model marketed from 1991 only in Japan, [17]. In
production until 1997, the system used a color
screen and a CCD camera mounted on the spoiler.
In 2000, the Nissan Infiniti model also featured a
reversing camera. In this system, coloured lines on
the LCD screen - an option available in the USA
from the following year - estimated the distance to
objects in the image, [19].
In 2017, Subaru and Cadillac combined a
reversing camera with automatic rear emergency
braking.
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Fig. 1: Timeline: from ADAS to driving automation for road vehicles
Advanced emergency braking (AEB) can detect
obstacles and brake to a complete stop to avoid or
reduce the impact of a collision.
In 1992, Mitsubishi installed a laser-based
system called 'Distance Warning' on its Debonair
model that could warn the driver if an object was
too close to the vehicle, [20]. Shortly afterwards, on
the Diamante model, the same car manufacturer
introduced a closed-loop system called 'Preview
Distance Control'. This system acts on the
accelerator to help the driver avoid collisions,
thereby improving reaction time. During the 1990s,
other car manufacturers became actively involved in
the development of their systems. It soon became
apparent that collision avoidance systems by means
of frontal detection could, and should, be combined
with automatic braking and cruise control systems,
[17].
In 2003, Honda was the first company to
propose a radar-based automatic braking system
called ‘Collision Mitigation Braking System’, [21].
Toyota, Mercedes, and Volvo soon proposed similar
developments.
The first Tire Pressure Monitoring System
(TPMS), first installed on the Porsche 959, dates
back to 1985, [22].
Stability control systems made their appearance
in the early 1990s: Bosch introduced such a system
in 1995 on the Mercedes-Benz S600 coupé, [23].
Stability control is also integrated with the ABS and
traction control systems, adding additional sensors
to understand how the vehicle responds to driver-led
actions (via the accelerator and steering), [11].
Stability control became standard equipment in the
US in 2012. Referring back to the early 2000s,
Volvo introduced what it called a Blind Spot
Information System for Blind Spot Monitoring
(BSM) in 2003, [24].
This system warns the driver whenever a
vehicle is in his or her blind spot, right or left, and
provides an additional audible warning if the
direction indicator is on in that situation. Warnings
are displayed in the side mirrors or windscreen
frame.
Amongst ADAS equipped on SAE Level 0
vehicles, there are several collision warning
systems, each of which has a different field of vision
and range. Forward Collision Warning (FCW)
warns the driver of the presence of obstacles ahead
of the vehicle, at relatively long distances, so that
the driver can react with a wide margin to obstacles
ahead when driving at relatively high speeds, such
as on motorways. Cross Traffic Alert (CTA), on the
other hand, detects vehicles closer and at a greater
lateral distance than FCW. Because of this shorter
longitudinal range, CTA works at low speeds, such
as when exiting a car park or approaching an
intersection with poor vision. The wider range
allows it to detect traffic that is crossing with the
vehicle. Park Assist sensors often have an even
smaller range and are therefore only effective in
avoiding collisions with stationary objects.
In addition to the collision avoidance related
ADAS, there are also others related to speed
regulation. Curve Speed Warning (CSW) systems,
for example, warn the driver about unsafe speeds
during curves. The more elaborate Intelligent Speed
Adaptation (ISA) function compares current driving
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speed to one of three types of speed limit, [25], 1)
fixed speed limits, i.e. posted speed limit at a
location; 2) dynamic speed limits, which
additionally take account of the actual road and
traffic conditions (weather, traffic density); and 3)
variable speed limits, which additionally take
account of special locations such as road
construction sites, pedestrian crossings and sharp
curves. In case of speeding, the ISA system can
warn the driver (e.g. with audio visual signals),
assist the driver (e.g. with a haptic throttle, which
provides resistance above the speed limit), or even
restrict the driver from going faster (e.g. the dead
throttle, which makes it impossible to go faster than
the local speed limit), [26]. ISA can further be
categorized by whether it can be switched off by the
driver (overridable vs. non-overridable). The EU
will make the overridable ISA with acoustic
warnings or with assistance mandatory by 2022 for
all new car models.
Finally, there are also ADAS related to lane
departure which help the driver stay within lane
boundaries. Lane Departure Warning (LDW)
systems provide a warning when the vehicle is about
to veer out of a lane. Lane Keeping Assist (LKA)
also actively steers to keep the vehicle within lane
boundaries.
The systems just described represent only a part
of the multiplicity of SAE Level 0 systems.
SAE Level 1 can provide continuous steering or
brake/acceleration support in specific
circumstances. Systems equipped on this kind of
vehicle are generally the Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC) for longitudinal control and the Lane
Centring (LC) for lateral control, [27]. Adaptive
Cruise Control (ACC) automatically regulates the
vehicle's velocity to maintain a secure distance from
the preceding vehicle and adhere to the
predetermined velocity. If braking is required, the
ACC can typically produce up to 30% of the
automobile's maximum deceleration. If a more
substantial reduction in speed is necessary, the
driver will receive an audible signal. Regular ACC
can generally be activated at speeds of 30 km/h or
higher. Some ACCs have a stop-and-go feature,
which enables the ACC to bring the vehicle to a
complete halt, allowing it to be used in traffic
congestion.
Adaptive cruise control made its debut in the
mid-1990s thanks to Mitsubishi, which introduced a
system designed to slow the car down by
downshifting the gears of the automatic
transmission, but it was Mercedes that brought it to
the market a few years later: the S-Class luxury
sedan brought adaptive cruise control very similar to
today's systems. A more recent development is the
computerized binocular vision system, first
introduced to the market in 2012 by Subaru.
A novel ACC functionality is Predictive Speed
Control, which integrates the ACC with the
navigation system and other sensors, enabling it to
adjust the vehicle's speed to the current speed limits
and reduce velocity before curves, intersections, and
roundabouts. ACCs that have this feature are also
referred to as predictive ACCs.
The Lane Centering (LC) function automatically
directs the vehicle to maintain its position in the
centre of the lane. This varies from Lane Keeping
Assist (LKA), which only delivers minor steering
inputs when the automobile is already drifting and
about to cross lane boundaries. At lower speeds, the
LC feature often utilises the vehicle ahead to
maintain the centre of the lane, while at higher
speeds, lane boundaries are employed. These
systems usually provide minor steering input and
always require the driver to maintain their hands on
the steering wheel.
An early example was provided by Toyota in
2002, while the actual system was installed by Audi
in 2008.
In SAE Level 2 the driver must still keep his
hands on the steering wheel, but in addition to the
previous level, systems on board these vehicles can
combine lateral and longitudinal control under
specific circumstances, [27]. Thus, the system
executes longitudinal (accelerating, braking) and
lateral (steering) dynamic driving tasks when
activated and can deactivate immediately upon
request for immediate takeover by the human driver,
[28].
Generally, this means a combination of
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and Lane Centring
(LC). Car manufacturers often offer stop and go
ACC with LC and Blind Spot Monitoring as one
system package. An example of a feature that is
generally only offered in combination with a Level
2 type system is Lane Change Assist, which can
automatically perform a lane change maneuver after
the driver has initiated or approved the lane change.
Newer Level 2 systems also sometimes offer Route
Navigation, where the vehicle can perform highway
driving from the entrance ramp to the exit ramp by
following the navigation route. While these systems
appear to take over the driving task completely, the
driver is still obliged to monitor the driving situation
and, in the EU, [29], keep their hands on the
steering wheel.
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With the subsequent SAE levels, the driving
functions are no longer attributable to ADAS alone,
as from SAE Level 3 onwards the role of the human
driver becomes increasingly marginal, as it is
artificial intelligence that takes over, understands
the environment, and makes the car move until it is
eliminated with the last SAE Level. Specifically,
while Level 2 systems require the driver to be
attentive and to monitor the driving environment,
Level 3 systems allow the driver to turn his attention
away from the complete dynamic driving task
(steering, accelerating/braking, OEDR) in certain
domains that the system is designed to operate in,
[28].
They deactivate only after requesting the driver
to take over with sufficient lead time; may − under
certain, limited circumstances − transition to
minimal risk conditions if the human driver does not
take over; and may momentarily delay deactivation
when immediate human takeover could compromise
safety.
Among the SAE Level 3 systems it is worth
mentioning Tesla's Autopilot, which allows the
vehicle to control its gait in complete autonomy,
even if the driver does not keep his hands on the
wheel or is distracted, keeping speed within limits,
safety distances, avoiding obstacles, and even
changing lanes when necessary.
In SAE Level 4, on the other hand, the
“handover” between the guidance system and the
driver occurs when the design conditions are no
longer met and compatible. Therefore, the system
must be able to transfer the vehicle to the human
driver in a condition of minimum risk and within the
operational design conditions.
Finally, while Level 4 systems accomplish
vehicle guidance only in a specific operational
design domain, e.g., during a traffic jam on a
motorway, SAE Level 5 systems can accomplish the
complete journey from origin to destination in a
high automation modus and can do so anywhere on-
road that a human can legally drive a vehicle, [28].
Apart from activating, deactivating, and setting
waypoints and destinations, no human intervention
is necessary for the operation of autonomous
vehicles. Therefore, in an extreme scenario,
traditional driver controls, such as a steering wheel,
pedals, or instrument cluster, are not required.
It should be emphasized that it is not the vehicle
that is classified with an SAE Level of automation
but rather the driving function; in fact, during travel,
there may be a combination of different levels of
automation: for example, Level 3 for a highway
section that then becomes Level 1 with Adaptive
Cruise Control (ACC) in the final urban section.
On 14 July 2022, Europe changed the law and gave
the green light for Level 3 autonomous driving cars
to circulate on the road.
Although there are still some obstacles in the
adoption of driverless vehicles of a technological,
normative, ethical, and social nature, [30], [31],
[32], [33], [34], [35], it is evident how much the
automotive industry has worked over the last
century to make a multitude of automated
functionalities available in our vehicles, a number
that is set to grow even further in the near future; for
example, car manufacturers such as BMW Group
and Daimler AG are planning next-generation
technologies for driver assistance systems up to
SAE level 4.
3 The Users’ Propensity to Use
Steering Wheel Controls: Result of a
Mobility Survey
The application case study comprised is of the
Naples metropolitan city and the Province of
Caserta (south of Italy). The survey was carried out
through a CAWI (Computer Assisted Web
Interview) method randomly selecting car drivers
through the main social media during the winter of
2023, through the use of an ad-hoc software
developed for the scope.
The questionnaire designed consists of two sub-
sections:
1. socio-economic background (e.g., age,
gender, occupation) and mobility habits
(trip frequency, average travel time);
2. on-board presence of steering wheel
controls with the aim of:
− investigate the level of usage of the
driver assistance systems by type
(i.e., steering wheel controls to
listen to music vs. to answer calls);
− investigate the users' opinion about
the role of the steering wheel
controls in improving road safety,
also mitigating driving stress
(improving the travel experience).
The questionnaire responses were analyzed through
qualitative analysis.
Overall, 307 car drivers were interviewed, and
Table 1 reports the main survey results: 63% of the
sample was male; 66% were 18-40 years old; 68%
were employed.
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Table 1. Survey results: socio-economic characteristics
number
%
Gender
male
192
62.54%
female
115
37.46%
Age
18-30
110
35.83%
30-40
94
30.62%
40-50
53
17.26%
Over 50
50
16.29%
Profession
Employed
221
68.40%
Not employed
14
6.19%
Student
72
25.41%
Total sample size
307
100.00%
Results in the presence of steering wheel
controls onboard the cars are reported in Fig. 2. 60%
of the respondents currently have steering wheel
controls onboard their car to listen to music and/or
answer calls. In addition, among those who do not
have them, 89% of the respondents believed they
would like to have them in their next car.
Figure 3 reports the results in terms of both the
level of usage of these driver assistance systems and
users’ perception of their impact on road safety and
driving stress. In particular, the results were
reported separately for the type (steering wheel
controls to listen to music vs to answer calls). About
60% of the respondents frequently (high) use
steering wheel controls to answer calls and more
than 80% of the drivers stated that these devices
significantly improve both road safety and driving
stress. Instead, about the steering wheel controls to
listen to music, more than 68% of the respondents
use them frequently (high) and about 74% of the
drivers stated that these devices significantly reduce
driving stress and increase road safety. Interestingly
is to observe that no differences in frequency of
usage have been found between steering wheel
controls to answer calls and to listen to music. In
terms of users' opinion, a significant difference was
observed between steering wheel controls to answer
calls and steering wheel controls to listen to music;
specifically, the former is considered safer and
better at reducing stress than the latter (about 8
percentage points more).
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Fig. 2: Survey results: presence of steering wheel controls on board the vehicles
Fig. 3: Survey results: frequency of usage and users' opinion about the role of the steering wheel controls
(Driver Assistance Systems) in improving road safety, also mitigating the driving stress (improve the travel
experience).
89%
11%
If No, would you be inclined to use them,
if available?
Yes No
60%
30%
10%
How frequently do you use steering
wheel controls to answer calls?
High Medium None
82%
18%
Do you think that steering wheel controls to
answer calls contribute to enhanced road
safety and/or reduced driving stress?
High Low
68%
27%
4%
How frequently do you use steering
wheel controls to listen to music?
High Medium None
74%
26%
Do you think that steering wheel controls to
listen to music contribute to enhanced road
safety and/or reduced driving stress?
High Low
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4 Conclusion
The safety and comfort of passengers have been the
major driving forces for developing advanced
driver assistance systems (ADAS), [36], [37], [38].
Today, ADAS has become a salient feature for
safety in modern vehicles and from 2024 some of
them will become mandatory on new cars. In
addition to improving the safety of current vehicles,
these systems represent, together with artificial
intelligence, the right direction toward self-driving
vehicles, [39], [40]. Indeed, the way to autonomous
driving is closely connected to the capability of
verifying and validating Advanced Driver
Assistance Systems (ADAS), as it is one of the
main challenges to achieve secure, reliable, and
thereby socially accepted self-driving cars, [41].
Pushing towards the autonomous is fundamental
for future mobility. Indeed, autonomous vehicles
have the potential to reduce road accidents,
alleviate traffic congestion, abate pollutant
emissions, reduce fuel consumption, [42], [43],
[44], potentially decrease land use, and profoundly
modify the scope and boundaries of mobility
services, [45], [46]. Furthermore, autonomous
mobility, together with e-mobility, [47], [48], [49],
[50] and smart roads, [51], [52], [53], can
significantly contribute to the sustainable mobility
and the decarbonization of the transport sector. The
field of ADAS has matured towards more and more
complex assistance functions, applied with a wider
scope and a strongly increasing number of possible
users due to the wider market penetration.
Starting from these considerations, the paper
investigated the evolution of these systems over
time and the users’ propensity to use steering wheel
controls. Estimation results show that 60% of the
respondents currently have the steering wheel
controls on board their car to listen to music and/or
answer calls.
Of those who have these devices, about 60%
(68%) of the respondents frequently (high) use
steering wheel controls to answer calls (to listen to
music). 82% (74%) of the drivers stated that these
devices to answer calls (to listen to music)
significantly improve both road safety and driving
stress, (improve the overall travel experience).
Furthermore, it is interesting to observe that
steering wheel controls to answer calls are
perceived as more useful than those to listen to
music (about 8 percentage points more). Finally,
among those who do not have steering wheel
controls, 89% of the respondents believed they
would like to have them in their next car.
These results underline the relevant effort that
the automotive industry has performed in the last
decades to integrate advanced functionalities
onboard the vehicles. Future research will follow
the evolution of possible market penetration
scenarios through, for example, cost-benefit or
multi-criteria analysis, [54], [55], also within
rational transportation planning decision-making
processes, [56], [57].
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
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