Developing Green Feed Toward Environment Sustainability in

Freshwater Aquaculture in Indonesia

YUARY FARRADIA1, MAS TRI DJOKO SUNARNO2, MAS BAYU SYAMSUNARNO3

1Faculty of Business, Economic and Social Development, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,

MALAYSIA

2Indonesia Research, Institute for of Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries Extension, Bogor,

INDONESIA

3Department of Aquaculture, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Serang, Banten,

INDONESIA

Abstract: - Environment performance is critical in freshwater aquaculture subject to fish diet formulation due to

its negative impacts such as waters eutrophication and water quality. Problem on the water quality is not only

impact on the fish growth itself but also will impact on the aquaculture business sustainability. Sustainability of

fresh water aquaculture mainly relates to its environment performance subject to various resource management.

Freshwater aquaculturist face a challenge to manage such resources to achieve their competitive advantage.

The Resource-Based View (RBV) theory highlight on the firm ability to achieve their competitive advantage

which dynamic capability is one of the main concern. The intensive freshwater aquaculture relied on feed as the

primary factor to increase fish growth and production mainly. The feed might contribute 20 -30% waste in

environment. The objective of this study is to identify in what extend green feed technology can support the

environment sustainability. This study use combination of field data experimental result and semi structure

interview to the fish farmers and fish agents. Developing green feed is one of the solution to gain environment

sustainability. Various commercial diets have been fed on freshwater cultured fishes using both cages and

ponds. As the results, low digestible diet and wasted diet has increased N and P in water, which will decline

water quality at certain level. It is recommended to formulate green feed using low P and high digestible

ingredients as well as any supplement material, which could increase diet digestibility. Minimize waste possible

done through increasing feeding efficiency and use multiple cages, polyculture, aquaponics system in ponds,

and alternative fish by-product in the diet. Technology to support the environment sustainability can be

implemented by arranging the C-N ratio of the water, which will raise production of both bioflocs and bio-

films. Stocking multi species different food web is recommended.

Keywords: Green Feed, Environment, Sustainability, Freshwater, Aquaculture

Received: May 8, 2021. Revised: February 19, 2022. Accepted: March 21, 2022. Published: April 20, 2022.

1 Introduction

Freshwater aquaculture is one of the fastest growing

food production sectors in Indonesia. However,

most research on the freshwater aquaculture have

more concern on technic‐biological issues than

socio‐economic and institutional ones. Indeed,

such activity must face great economic, social and

environmental challenges. Relate to the sustainable

development goals program, there has been a

growing interest in the sustainability of the activity,

in its economic, environmental and social

dimensions. In terms of sustainability, hence

aquaculture sector has much to contribute to the

achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) and the SDGs are relevant to aquaculture

development [1]-[2].

In practice, environmental sustainability

becomes a question of selecting the best alternatives

among different practices and procedures. The

aquaculture farmers face various solutions with

different environmental consequences. The best

technologies are expected being able to reduce the

environmental footprint which will impact on the

increasing productivity [3]. Hence, various industry

groups, companies, organizations, and government

institutions have developed sets of good

management practices that aid in making such

choices. Additionally, “green label” programs

sometimes balance the cost of more expensive

management practices by providing price premiums

or access to specialty markets for aquaculture

products raised under social and environmentally

responsible practices.

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Despite the contribution of fresh aquaculture

production systems as to food and nutrition best

provider for people, as well as to develop the

national economy, however, an unsustainable

expansion of the industry might pose a significant

threat to the global environment. Issue such as the

trash fish, that are needed to feed in the farmed fish

industries [4] [5] might be the most source of

environmental problem in the freshwater

aquaculture industry.

Fish contains high nutrient required by human

for maintain their health and welfare. The

Government of Indonesia encourages the people to

consume fish as high as possible. In 2019, human

fish consumption value achieved at 54.4 kg per

capita. Aquaculture produces fish increasingly by a

year for supplying human demand. It is because of

availability good quality of seed, commercial diet,

good water quality and fish health management.

There is a tendency that the attention to how to

provide healthful food from fish from aquaculture is

greater than the sustainable management of aquatic

resources [6]. The aquaculture activities generate

waste to water environment. It is therefore,

environmental management is becoming more

important as the emphasis on the environmental

protection. The impact of this aquaculture waste on

environment sustainability becomes a public

concern [7] [8]. The waste of aquaculture comes

from faces and wasted diet. In the meanwhile, diet is

a significantly factor to increase of production of

aquaculture. Therefore, feed is a major element in

realizing the ambitions of the aquaculture industry

and at the same time, threatens in reducing quality

of water resources [9].

In intensive freshwater aquaculture systems

relying on high quality of diet for increasing fish

growth instead [10] [11] [12], feed is also the major

source of waste [13] [8] [14] [15] [16] [17]. The

effect of wasted diet from aquaculture varies. It

depends on nutrient composition, method of feed

production (extruded vs pelleted), ratio of feed size

to fish, quantity of feed per unit time, feeding

method, and storage time [18] [17].

Study on the green feed technology which

impact to the environment sustainability is limited.

There is a need to have integration research between

field experimental design for fish with the social

research perspective as the basis of exploration

study.

This study covers a broad spectrum of reviews

and original research contributions in the topic of

environment sustainability of freshwater

aquaculture, with a particular emphasis on the

environmental interactions of aquaculture activities

toward its sustainability. The study aimed to

understand in what extent of the green feed practice

within the freshwater aquaculture in Indonesia

toward environment sustainability. This study also

provides an overview of the environmental impacts

of production and the sustainability that it is subject

to the green fed development point of view. This

aims to be useful to aquaculture producers and

companies to improve the competitiveness and

sustainability of their activity and thus improve their

well-being. It also aims to provide a snapshot of the

current state of knowledge and the latest advances

and practices in this area to policy makers and other

stakeholders to promote the governance and

sustainability of aquaculture.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Returns Resource Based View Theory

The performance of the enterprise within a

particular industry might not be determined by the

external environment, but internal factors. This is

the essence of the theory of RBV which used as the

ground theory of this study toward environmental

sustainability in the freshwater aquaculture. The

RBV stated that a business’s performance is

dependent on internal resources and capabilities [19]

or practices of the firm or business. The RBV is a

model that sees resources as key to superior firm

performance.

The RBV model explains that it is significant to

accept and fulfil external or new opportunities using

existing resources innovatively. There are two types

of assets in the RBV model namely, tangible and

intangible assets. The tangible assets are the

physical resources of the firm that are quantifiable.

The tangible asset in freshwater aquaculture

includes products, machinery, equipment, capital,

infrastructure, etc. They can be easily acquired by

competitors in identical assets and offer a less

competitive advantage in the long run. Hence,

concerning on green feed product as one of the

material resources will impact to long term

aquaculture sustainability in particular for the

environmental sustainability pillar.

2.2 Environmental Sustainability

Sustainability is most often defined as meeting the

needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet theirs. It has

three main pillars: economic, environmental, and

social. Sustainability and environmental issues are

among the most pressing concerns and

environmentally conscious business organizations to

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promote organizational sustainability, specifically

for the emerging economies [20] [21] [22].

Environmental issues mostly refer to the main

category of environmental impact with emphasis on

materials (including water), energy, or pollution

namely emissions and toxic waste. Some popular

programs developed for environmentally conscious

practices are started from design for product namely

eco design, environment, total quality

environmental management, up to an establishment

of a green product concept. Eco-design refers to

environmental design of a product and /or a process

[23]. It focuses on reducing or preventing the

environmental effects of a product before it is

produced, distributed and used. Eco-design is an

approach to product design that makes special

consideration of the environmental impact of the

product during its entire life cycle.

According to the Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) of Conduct for Responsible

Fisheries Art.9, aquaculture is sustainable when

management, fish farms locations and use of natural

resources-with their social implications and

institutional orientation - ensure economic viability,

social equity and acceptable impacts to the

environment. Significant threats to marine

resources, coastal resources, and the global

environment can occur if there is an unsustainable

expansion of the aquaculture industry [6].

Therefore, it is a challenge to find fish feed’s protein

ingredients with the lowest environmental impact

[24].

2.3 Green Product

A green product is one which satisfies consumers'

needs without damaging the environment and

contributes towards a more sustainable world. Green

products can be defined as products that use less

resources, have lower impacts and risks to the

environment as well as prevent waste generation

already at the conception stage [25]. This definition

emphasizes the importance of designing products as

‘green’ since the conceptualization phase. Those

products that are manufactured from the industry

through the green technology and caused no

environmental hazards are called “Green Products”

[26]. Green products also can be stated as products

that do not harm or pollute the environment as well

as low carbon dioxide production. Green product

can be distinguished based on their main

environmental focus, respectively as green products

focused on materials, energy, and pollution [27].

Green aquafeed product development is one of

the strategies to reduce the diet waste from

aquaculture. There are currently various voluntary

instruments that can help freshwater aquaculture in

the fishery industry to improve the environmental

performance of their product and fish production

processes, such as eco-design, or to encourage the

purchase of products that are environmental-friendly

in order to produce green product of fish feed.

Freshwater aquaculture in Indonesia has been

applying green product of the fish feed in particular

for the small medium aqua culturists.

2.4 Aquaculture Feed Wastes

Mostly, both solid wastes and dissolved is produced

from freshwater aquaculture activities. Solid wastes

originates from uneaten diet and faecal of cultured

fish. These solid wastes will clog fish gills and lead

to death, especially for large settled particles [13]. In

a properly managed aquaculture producing highly

feed efficiency, the solid wastes of feed will be

produced at an approximately 30 percent [28] [29].

Dissolved wastes are products of diet metabolism in

fish or decomposed, uneaten diet. The dissolved

wastes contain two major components of nitrogen

(N) and phosphorus (P) [16]. This N and P are

unable utilized by fish, but primarily component of

the feed, and therefore, will lead to a high potential

for environmental pollution from aquaculture [30]

[17]. These nutrients enter to the systems and are

eventually released into the environment as a waste

[31].

The management of feed is the primary solution

for managing the environmental impacts of

aquaculture [8] [32]. Proper management of the

inputs into the culture system to effectively reduce

wastes of aquaculture can be approached using feed

and feeding systems. About 20% reduction in

environmental impact from aquaculture system

could be performed by reducing feed conversion

ratio value in a fish farm at least 30% [33].

3 Methods

This study conducted based on mixed method

approach. The quantitative study is based on

secondary data of various fish feed experimental

study subject to the characteristics presented by the

multiple case studies of freshwater aquaculture.

The aim of this quantitative study is to analyse

green feed technology to find the best feed fish

formulation which less toxic to the environment

despite the good growth of fish itself. Which feed

ingredients need to be less consume for the fish

feed and which material need to be replace in order

to deliver good fish production without harming the

surrounding ecosystem relate to the environment.

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The result of this data is used as the basis to

conduct an explorative-oriented qualitative method

involving semi-structured interviews. The aim of

this qualitative study is to examine in more detail

how is the best practice of green feed technology

implemented by freshwater aquacultures.

This method is used because the content is

contemporary [34]. Semi-structured in-depth

interviews were conducted to examine respondent

experiences with sustainability strategies and

practices. Other’s data are gathered from various

multiple forms of data, such as semi structured face

to face interviews, observations, documents such as

annual reports, news, official reports, research

publication. This type of qualitative research is

necessary because the topic is new and the subject

has never been discussed with a specific sample or

group of people, and the existing theory does not

apply to the particular sample or group studied [35].

3.1. Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection is gathered from

multiple fresh water aquaculture type such as fish

cage, fishponds with various fish species production

namely catfish and tilapia. The location of data

collection is represented from potential freshwater

aquaculture lands in some provinces in Indonesia

such as Java, Sumatera and Kalimantan.

Semi structure interview is conducted with fish

farmers and extension agents’ representative

respondents at various types of fish cultured. In a

range of 3 to 10 respondents was required for

phenomenology research [36]. The semi hearing

was done at each type of freshwater aquaculture.

Each informal interview lasted for about 10 minutes.

The result of semi structured interview, then was

compiled. Table 1 presented the list of freshwater

aquaculture type used as interviewees in this study.

Table 1. Freshwater aquaculture types used in the study

Fish Species

Fish Cages

Fish Ponds

Clarias gariephinus

Fish Farmer 1a

Extension agent 1b

Pangasionodon hypopthalmus

Fish Farmer 2a

Extension agent 2b

Oreochromis niloticus

Fish Farmer 3a

Extension agent 3b

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Results

Freshwater fish farmers (cages, ponds) raising

catfish (patin catfish - Pangasionodon hypopthamus

and catfish- Clarias gariepinus), common carp

(Cyprinus carpio) and Tilapia (Oreochromis

niloticus) realized that (a) their fish production play

an important role in supplying fish for human

consumption, (b) fish culture requires green water

environment and feed, (c) fish culture wasted

organic material in term of wasted feed and feces.

Fish farmers used feed efficiency as indicator of

feed quality (Table 2). The feed efficiency formula

is calculated by : Feed efficiency (%) = fish wet

weight gain x 100 / feed intake (dry matter). The

more high feed efficiency, the more good quality of

feed, the less organic waste of fish culture in water.

Organic waste of fish culture being into the water

environment and at certain levels will decline water

quality. Annual fish death, particularly in cage

placed in lake, and/or man made lake due to water

upwelling bringing organic material from water

bottom was observ.

Table 2. Feed efficiency (%) in various fishes raised in various captives and fed on various commercial

diets

Fish species

Cage

Ponds

Concrate

pond

Peatsoil

pond

Catfish-lele (C. gariepinus)

100,00

Catfish - Patin (P. hypopthamus)

71,43

66,67

Common carp (C. carpio)

71,43

66,67

Tilapia (O. niloticus)

71,43

66,67

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Feed contains complete and balanced nutrition

required by fish. Wasted feed and feces are into

waters and decomposed by microorganism to form

total Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). P is an

important element in preparation of nucleic acids

and cell membranes. Fish must obtain P from their

diet because concentration of phosphate in natural

waters is low. P deﬁciency results poor growth, poor

feed effciency, and bone mineralization. Balanced

and completed diet will increase feed efficiency and

reduce waste, less N and P released in waters. Water

pollution from freshwater aquaculture activities

mostly due to using bad quality of feed. N and P are

often as important nutrients for eutrophication in

natural water. Table 3 shows composition of crude

protein, N and P in various commercial feeds.

Releasing N and P from diet depend on water

stability of diet and immersion time of wasted feed

and faces as well.

Table 3. Crude protein, total N and P of various commercial diet used in freshwater aquaculture

Feed Composistion

Commercial Feed

Crude protein (%)

26.00

26.40

27.32

27.35

28.25

28.33

29.13

29.46

Total N (%)

4.16

4.23

4.37

4.38

4.52

4.53

4.66

4.71

Phosphorus (%)

2.47

2.08

1.38

2.82

2.62

5.18

2.75

3.32

2.99

Fish farmers stated that about 20%-30% of total

diet fed on cultured fish wasted in water bodies. In

cage culture, this wasted diet was re-utilized using

double or triple cages stocked with different fish

species to reduce organic material waste in waters.

In ponds, reducing wasted feed using polyculture

system, and aqua-phonic system were observed. In

catfish culture, probiotic was applied to maintain

water quality in good condition. Increasing feed

efficiency of commercial diet was done using

supplementing micronutrient such as glutamine [37]

and fermenting diet with commercial microbe

(bacteria and/or fungi) [38] [39] to increase feed

digestibility. Table 4 described detail condition of

the environment performance based on both farmers

and research extension observation. Despite the

lowest environment performance on cages type,

however, it still can be improved subject to green

feed development.

Table 4. Environment performance in freshwater aquaculture

Performance

Cage

Ponds

Concrete Pond

Peat-soil Pond

Uneaten feed

many

Some

Few

Many

Feces

Low

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Water transparency

High

Moderate

Eutrophication level

High

Moderate

Non

High

4.2 Discussion

4.2.1 Environment Performance of Fish Green

Feed

Waste of freshwater aquaculture activities should be

concerned because of the main factor affecting on

environmental sustainability subject to sustainability

of aquaculture business. This relates to use feed

intensively contributing in large number of organic

wastes in term of wasted feed and fish feces. Those

organic wastes play significantly role in

eutrophication of natural water particularly water

bodies such as lake and reservoirs used for setting

cage culture. The eutrophication of natural waters

relates to release Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)

in water. Feed particularly having bad quality is the

main sources of N and P. According to Boyd

(1982), N and P are an important nutrient in water

needed in primary productivity. Over concentration

of both nutrients in water bodies results in

increasing water fertility. In freshwater, P is limiting

factor and orthophosphate is its form being ready to

be used by aquatic plants. Over supply of P from

wasted feed and feces in natural water trigger algae

blooming. This situation causes drop of dissolved

oxygen concentration and increasing free carbon

dioxide and ammonia-Nitrogen in water. Declining

water quality in water body results in annual fish

death in a mass. It is therefore, green water

environment in freshwater aquaculture is absolutely

needed.

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The green water environment is an effort to

guarantee that aquatic organisms live conveniently

both wild organisms and cultured fish. In fresh

water aquaculture, fish growth, production and

productivity is the main targeted. Completed and

balanced feed is a primary input production process.

Fish farmers have already well known a feed quality

that use feed efficiency as an indicator. Good

quality of feed results in high feed efficiency and in

other hand, bad quality of feed results in low feed

efficiency. In practice, many qualities of feeds are

used in fresh water aquaculture. It depends on price

of the feed. Increasing feed price such observed in

field causes fish farmers to use low quality of feed

because the feed cost contributes up to 70% of total

production cost. The low feed quality brings to

decline water quality. This is not in line with green

water environment concepts.

4.2.2 Green Feed Practice

Fish farmers have been conducting an effort of

increasing feed efficiency in freshwater aquaculture.

Reducing wasted diet in natural water using double

and/or triple cages is observed. Different fish

species was stocked in each layer cage. Wasted feed

in the first cage layer will be fed on fish in the

second cage, and so on. This will optimize the feed

utilization and only feces will expel in natural water.

Effort of greening water environment in eutrophic

with restocking herbivorous fish species water

bodies has been done.

Habitat destruction, water pollution, and

ecological degradation are forms of environmental

degradation caused by the freshwater aquaculture

industry. Eutrophication, as a process that is caused

by the excessive input of nutrients such as

phosphorus and nitrogen, has been widely

recognizing as a severe threat to the environment as

well [40] [41]. It negatively affects water quality

and eventually leads to ecological damage [41].

Therefore, effective green feed management

strategies are urgently needed to minimize the

environmental impacts of freshwater aquaculture

and to ensure maximal contribution to environment

sustainability.

Biofloc technology has been gaining popularity

as an efficient alternative water management system

[42] [43] [44] [45]. This technique is one of the

green feed technology management implementation

as it combines the removal of nutrients from water

with the production of microbial biomass. Earlier

studied has revealed that biofloc was used by the

culture species in situ as feed supplements [46] [47].

Another green feed development to reduce water

pollution can be implemented based on the earlier

concept and practice of integrated multi-trophic

aquaculture. Multi-trophic aquaculture is based on

the concept that waste from one species, such as

uneaten feed, faeces, and metabolic excretion, is

useful for the growth of other species, thus forming

a natural self-cleansing mechanism [48]. There are

countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia,

Vietnam, China, and Thailand, have been

successfully incorporated this practice by culturing

fish species in combination with seaweed to

increase economic benefits and reduce negative

environmental impacts from aquaculture activities

[49] [50].

Based on the above effort for green feed

development, it can be said that as sustainability

focuses on future for which present utilization of

resources is necessary, hence, a good environmental

performance goes as an investment for future [51].

This is because in operational activities components

cover all aspects of sustainability, taking into

account materials such as raw materials, semi-

finished products, end products, by-products,

emissions and wastes, processes and finally

technology aspects [52].

4.2.3 The Extent of Green Feed Practice

Based on the observation and interview with both

fish farmers and the extension agents.

Implementation of green feed practice for the

freshwater aquaculture in Indonesia is in progress.

Majority of the small medium scale of fresh water

aquacultures have been socialized to use the new

feed formulation.

In addition to the environment sustainability

effort, thus it provides some support of the RBV that

internal capabilities or practices improve business

performance. The ability to quickly respond to

reduce waste and negative environmental impacts

can be an example of a dynamic capability effort.

5 Conclusion

Developing green feed is needed by the freshwater

aquacultures toward environment sustainability

which will impact to the fish production. In

summary, the green feed practice within the

freshwater aquaculture in Indonesia indicates that

there is a need to further develops green feed

practices, as it will affect the sustainability of

environmental in line with the aquaculture

sustainability goal. Green feed is one of the tools

toward environment sustainability in freshwater

aquaculture in Indonesia.

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Green water environment should be achieved by

formulating a diet with low Phosphorus (P) and

increasing feed digestibility using micronutrient

supplementation and fermentation, and re-utilizing

wasted feed and faeces as well in nature water with

applying a technology of polyculture, biofloc, and

integrated multi trophic aquaculture. Finally it can

be explained that the freshwater aquaculture

producers might use its internal resources to renew

their capabilities and expertise in order to reduce

annual fish waste rate or CO2 emissions from

production environment toward environmental

sustainability.

Hence, it can be concluded that freshwater

aquaculture industry in Indonesia is has a tendency

toward fulfilment the green feed development.

Acknowledgments:

Thank you for the main contributor of M T D

Sunarno from Research Institute for Freshwater

Aquaculture and Fisheries Extension who providing

data relating to aquaculture and fish nutrition and

feed technology as well.

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