Innovative Feature Analysis of Electric Vehicle Technology, Charging

Infrastructure, Power management, and Control Methods

A. K. ONAOLAPO, B. T. ABE

Electrical Engineering Department,

Tshwane University of Technology,

Witbank Campus,

SOUTH AFRICA

Abstract: - Lowering the dependence on fossil fuels and reducing pollution from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

is incredibly achievable through electric vehicle (EVs) technology. EV technology is an innovation that uses

electricity, rather than fossil fuels, to power and refuel (recharge) vehicles. The adoption and development of EVs

should lead to a decline in future demand for fossil fuels, which are finite in supply and exhaustible. Inherent

challenges in EV technology, such as inadequate supply of critical minerals, power grid overload, battery

technology constraints, extended charging durations, insufficient charging infrastructures, high initial costs, and

limited driving range, must be addressed. The technology of charging infrastructures cannot be over-emphasized

in EV technology. EV technology, charging infrastructures, vis-à-vis the impact of their integration into the grid is

investigated. Effective control strategies and power management systems (PMSs) are required to optimize energy

use to improve EVs' efficiency and lifetime. This research uses comprehensive analysis methods to assess various

control strategies, PMSs, and their effects on EV integration into the grid.

Key-Words:- Electric vehicle technology, Charging infrastructure, Battery chargers, Control strategies, Power

management systems, Renewable energy resources, Feature analysis.

Received: May 23, 2024. Revised: August 14, 2024. Accepted: September 7, 2024. Published: October 25, 2024.

1 Introduction

EV technology was born out of the need to combat

the increasing environmental concerns arising from

the transport sector and contributing significantly to

climate change challenges. As of 2022, the transport

sector in the USA is said to be the highest contributor

of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, contributing

about 28% of the total GHG emissions, [1]. EV

systems use less or no fossil fuels but use more

electric grids or renewable energy (RE) for

recharging purposes. Fossil fuel consumption has

been reduced significantly through the adoption of

EVs. The growing demand for conventional vehicles

using fossil fuels has applications in EVs. This

demand for alternatives to conventional transport

systems results from the recognition of the risks

fossil fuels pose to the planet and the environment.

Various governments have encouraged this shift

through incentives, subsidies, and policies. Fossil

fuels present significant risks to the earth’s

ecosystem through GHG emissions, while EVs are

environmentally sustainable. EVs offer many more

societal benefits, such as economic viability, a safer

and cleaner environment, and improved public

health. A clean and safe environment is vital for

human beings’ existence. Besides, fossil fuel deposits

are finite and depleting rapidly. The adoption of EVs

is projected to increase significantly as governments

adopt measures to facilitate investments and reduce

carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

Some measures that will encourage EV adoption

are developing proportional electric generation

systems and charging infrastructures. The availability

of renewable energy resources (RERs), such as fuel

cells, hydroenergy, wind, and solar photovoltaic

(PV), in urban and rural areas makes them viable

alternatives for EV charging, [2]. EV accessibility

relies on the development of vital charging

infrastructures. Suitable and effective charging

infrastructures must be considered appropriately to

realize EVs' full potential. EV technology is crucial

to modern transportation systems because it involves

different emerging technologies, such as charging

infrastructures, battery systems, and electric motor

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS

DOI: 10.37394/232016.2024.19.30

A. K. Onaolapo, B. T. Abe

E-ISSN: 2224-350X

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Volume 19, 2024

systems. However, problems such as range anxiety,

high initial costs, and extended charging durations

make the transition to EVs slower than anticipated.

The growing demand for EVs and charging

infrastructures has necessitated research into

mitigating the strain on electrical grids, exploring

suitable control strategies, and using appropriate

power management systems. Authors in [3] explored

the plugin hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) nonlinear

control strategy for power flow of grid-to-vehicle and

vehicle-to-grid systems using adaptive super-twisting

sliding mode controller (AST-SMC) for voltage

regulation. In [4], the authors delved into the grid

impacts of electric vehicles’ highway fast charging

(HFC) to support decarbonization and address range

anxiety concerns, analyzing the potential adverse

effects of spatial concentration, high power

requirements, and relative inflexibility features of

HFC systems. In [5] a method to reduce voltage

variations and losses from EV charging stations

connected to electricity grids using distributed

generators' weak bus placement (WBP) strategy was

proposed. In [6], an in-depth review of control and

charging techniques of recent research on EV grid

integration was done. An in-depth assessment of the

complex interactions between the smart grid

infrastructures and EVs was provided. The [7]

explored the technologies of vehicle-to-vehicle

(V2V), grid-to-vehicle (G2V), and vehicle-to-grid

(V2G) concerning grid integration of EVs. They

posited the use of EVs as alternative sources of

energy for different network systems, such as virtual

power plants, microgrids, and smart grids. Vehicle-

to-Grid (V2G) technology was comprehensively

discussed in autonomous EVs in [8] and was posited

to have enormous potential to optimize the use of

EVs and revolutionize energy management. V2G-

enabled autonomous EVs were analyzed to be

capable of relieving the grid of strain during peak

demand, optimizing EV charging operations to off-

peak hours, engaging in demand response programs,

harmonizing high electricity demand, enhancing grid

stabilization, and functioning as mobile energy

storage units. Researchers in [9] exhausted the

possibility of dealing with the challenges of voltage

fluctuations, power losses, and transformer overloads

using a machine learning charging management

strategy whilst considering vehicle-to-grid (V2G)

technology, fast charging, and conventional charging

scenarios and the results were validated by the long

short-term memory (LSTM) machine learning model

which successfully minimized voltage fluctuations

and power losses. They flattened the load curve,

thereby achieving peak shaving. Authors in [10]

provided the architectures of the battery management

systems (BMS), their impacts on vehicle

performance, and a comprehensive review of BMS

subsystems, analyzing its thermal management, cell

balancing, state estimation, battery modeling, and

control strategies. In [11] an in-depth review of solar

photovoltaic (PV)-based EVs Power Converter

Topologies integrated into the grid was done,

devoting attention to the analysis of V2G operation

bi-directional power ability, efficiency, voltage and

power ranges, isolation, and topologies. Much

research has been conducted to explore EV

technologies, but more research is needed to address

the persisting challenges. Some of the contributions

of this study to the body of knowledge are as follows:

i). outlining EV’s technologies and their associated

challenges.

ii). innovative analysis of EV charging infrastructures

iii). in-depth investigation of EV charger types, and

iv). assessments of EV power management strategies

and control methods.

2 Electric Vehicle Technology

Analysis

There are different types of EV technologies with

their peculiar features. Such technologies include fuel

cell electric vehicles (FCEV), hybrid electric vehicles

(HEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and

battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Table 1 (Appendix)

shows a comprehensive analysis of the different

features of these EV technologies.

3 Electric Vehicle Charging

Technology

The two critical components of EV technology are

the power source and the charging system. Charging

systems can be broadly categorized based on power

flow and installation designs. The power flow design

can be unidirectional or bidirectional, while the

installation design can be on-board or off-board. A

unidirectional charger is a one-way charger sending

alternating current (AC) to the EV, where it is

converted to direct current (DC), while a

bidirectional charger allows the EV to convert the

battery’s DC back to AC for different uses such as

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS

DOI: 10.37394/232016.2024.19.30

A. K. Onaolapo, B. T. Abe

E-ISSN: 2224-350X

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Volume 19, 2024

vehicle to home (V2H) or vehicle to building (V2B),

vehicle to grid (V2G), vehicle to load (V2L), vehicle

to vehicle (V2V), and vehicle to everything (V2X).

Also, an on-board charger is built into the EV while

the off-board charger is located at a particular

location where the EV can go and refuel or recharge,

[12]. Feature analysis of power flow and installation

design chargers are presented in Table 2 and Table 3

in Appendix.

4 EV Charging Infrastructures

Charging infrastructure comprises different

equipment, such as charging stations, outlets, charge

controllers, monitors, etc. The availability of this

infrastructure is vital for charging, reliability, safety,

enhancing extensive usage, and facilitating long-

distance EV driving. Charging infrastructure could be

categorized as grid-connected, off-grid, hybrid-

microgrid, and renewable energy-based. Table 4

(Appendix) shows a feature analysis of these

charging infrastructures.

5 EV Energy Management Systems

The Energy Management System (EMS) is

responsible for controlling multiple energy sources

and delivering the required energy to EVs. This

management affects EVs' lifespan and efficiency.

EMS performs crucial roles in EVs, such as

enhancing seamless integration into the grid,

conducting effective charging operations,

coordinating supply from different resources, and

optimizing EVs' use. Table 5 (Appendix) shows a list

of available EMSs that have been designed and

executed by different researchers.

6 EV Control Strategies

An increase in load demand due to the adoption of

EVs can increase power losses, overload

transformers, reduce transformers’ lifespan, and

reduce grid voltage; hence, the necessity for

implementing appropriate control strategies. Control

strategies perform crucial roles in EVs, such as

improving the reliability of EVs, optimizing drive

range and efficiency, and ensuring effective

operations of charging infrastructures and EVs. The

dynamics of the state of charge (SOC) are expressed

as [27]:

1,i i b i

E E P t



  

(1)

where

𝛥𝑡

and Pb,i are the discretized time interval and

battery power respectively. Also,

full

SOC E



(2)

with

𝐸

full representing the battery’s full capacity.

During motion, retarding the vehicle requires forces

such as air drag, gradient resistance, and rolling

resistance. The vehicle torque needed for acceleration

is expressed as:

(sin cos ) 2

o i i i i D f i

T mv mg f c A v

  



   





(3)

where vi,

𝛼𝑖

, g, m, kf, and r represent the current

vehicle velocity, road slope, gravity acceleration,

vehicle mass, final reduction ratio, and wheel radius,

respectively. Also,

𝜌

𝐴

𝐶

D, and

𝑓

represent the air

density, vehicle frontal area, aerodynamic drag

coefficient, and rolling friction, respectively.

At maximum speed, the associated maximum

engine torque is expressed as:

max max

( . )

e e e i





(4)

where Te and ωe represent engine torque and engine

speed, respectively. Losses in the battery are derived

as:

, , , , ,

( 4 )

oc i oc i oc i end i b i

U U U P R





(5)

where the battery current

𝐼

𝑖

is negative while

charging and positive while discharging;

𝑃

end,

𝑖

represents power at the battery terminals,

𝑈

oc,

𝑖

represents the open-circuit voltage of the battery and

𝑅

𝑖

represents the equivalent internal resistance of

the battery. Both

𝑅

𝑖

and

𝑈

oc,

𝑖

depend on the battery’s

SOC.

Table 6 (Appendix) lists available control strategies

designed and executed by different researchers.

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS

DOI: 10.37394/232016.2024.19.30

A. K. Onaolapo, B. T. Abe

E-ISSN: 2224-350X

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Volume 19, 2024

7 International Standards and the EU

Directives about Electric Vehicles

Currently, many international organizations are

working on different EV charging codes and

standards. Some of the standards are shown in Table

7 (Appendix).

8 Conclusions

Different EV charging infrastructures, architectures,

and grid-integrated systems have emerged due to the

developments in EV technology. Efficient and

effective management of its charging operations

requires suitable power management approaches and

control methods. This study provides an innovative

analysis of EV technologies, charging infrastructures,

control strategies, and power management

approaches. This study helps make decisions to

alleviate strains from EV integration into the grid.

Engineers and researchers working on similar

research focus will find this study helpful in

advancing their research. Future research should

focus on finding solutions to different challenges

experienced in the development of EV technologies

and charging infrastructures, such as easy, fast, and

rapid charging mechanisms, improving the efficiency

and lifespan of EV batteries, developing appropriate

and highly efficient power management systems, and

the development of advanced V2H or V2B, V2G,

V2L, V2V, and V2X systems.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted

Technologies in the Writing Process

During the preparation of this work the authors used

Grammarly for language editing. After using this

service, the authors reviewed and edited the content

as needed and take full responsibility for the content

of the publication.

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E-ISSN: 2224-350X

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Volume 19, 2024

APPENDIX

Table 1. Feature analysis of different electric vehicle technologies

FCEV

HEV

PHEV

BEV

Resource

fuel or fuel cell.

Combination of fossil

fuel and battery.

Combination of fossil

fuel, battery, and a plug-

in charger for off-board

charging.

Efficiency

Excellent efficiency

but with a limitation

of hydrogen fuel

availability.

The overall best

efficiency of all EV

technologies.

Very good efficiency.

Excellent efficiency.

Affordability

Costlier than BEV

Cheapest among all EV

technologies.

Costlier than HEV

Costliest among all

EV technologies.

Drive range

Longer drive range

than BEV.

Moderate drive range.

Longer drive range.

Limited drive range.

Emission

Zero emissions.

Low emissions.

Zero emissions.

Table 2. Feature analysis of power flow design chargers

Unidirectional charger

Bidirectional charger

Flow direction

One-way power flow (battery charging).

Two-way power flow (plus communication

flow).

Affordability

Low cost.

High cost.

Benefit

-Battery life is high.

-Highly reliable.

-Circuit is less complex.

-Charger volume is compact.

-V2H, V2G), V2L, V2V, and V2X are

possible.

-Input supplies have low harmonics.

Challenge

-V2H, V2G), V2L, V2V, and V2X are

not possible.

-Power factor correction converter

experiences power loss in the diode

bridge rectifier.

-Battery life is low (due to charging and

recharging frequency).

-Less reliable.

-Circuit is more complex.

-Charger volume is complex.

Table 3. Feature analysis of installation design chargers

On-board charger

Off-board charger

Implementation

Easy

Complex

Affordability

Low cost

High cost

Performance

Low

High

Maintenance

Less

Space

Less

Benefit

-It is within the vehicle and more secure.

-More cost-effective.

-Needs no external cord, hence convenient.

-It can charge multiple batteries concurrently.

-It is mobile and usable anywhere.

-It is faster and more powerful than an on-board

charger.

Challenge

-Replacing the charger becomes difficult when

faulty.

-Its operation is limited to charging one battery per

time.

-It is not within the vehicle and is less secure.

-Costlier than an on-board charger.

-Needs external cords, and may be inconvenient.

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Table 4. Feature analysis of EV charging infrastructures

Feature benefit

Feature challenge

Grid-connected

-Longer drive range.

-Accessible everywhere.

-Faster charging speed.

-Cost more than off-grid chargers.

-Where grid supply is inconsistent, may be

unreliable.

-Most grids use fossil fuel sources, hence

unsustainable.

Off-grid

-Cost less than grid-connected.

-Does not depend on the grid, hence more

reliable.

-Uses renewable energy sources (RES),

hence more sustainable.

-More cost-effective than grid-connected.

-Limited charging speed.

-Limited drive range.

-Not accessible everywhere.

Hybrid-microgrid

-It enables charging for both AC and DC

sources, hence flexible.

-It generates and stores energy locally,

hence enhancing grid stability.

-It integrates both fossil fuel and renewable

sources, hence more efficient.

-Complex setup.

-More expensive to implement.

-New and not yet available everywhere.

Renewable energy-based

-Clean energy source, zero emission.

-Abundant sources of renewable energy

resources (RERs) and independence of

fossil fuel sources.

-Cost-effective.

-Reduces strain on the grid.

-High investment or expansion cost.

-Intermittency challenge.

-Not available everywhere.

-Grid integration hurdles.

Table 5. EV energy management systems

S/N

EMS

Description

References

Demand

response

Charging is managed using methods such as regulating charging patterns in accordance

with received signals from the grid operator or arranging scheduled charges to off-peak

hours.

[13], [14]

Integrating

energy

storage

During off-peak periods, energy storage stores excess energy, which is released for use

during peak periods, thereby reducing strain on the system.

[15], [16]

Integrating

renewable

energy

Effective optimization of RERs can help reduce dependence on the electricity grid,

minimize reliance on fossil fuel sources, and maximize the benefits of RES.

[17], [18]

Integrating

grid

management

systems

While this method has the tendency to put a strain on the grid, it enables EV charging

demand to be monitored and controlled. Measures are put in place to adhere to the grid’s

capacity limitation.

[19, [20]

Smart

charging

algorithms

Algorithms are designed on factors such as users’ preferences, electricity cost, and

demand on the grid, to optimize charging operations. Such algorithms can prioritize

charging for EVs, initiate charging delay, and vary the charge rate.

[21], [22]

Vehicle-to-

grid (V-2-G)

technology

The stored energy in EV batteries could be harnessed to supply power to commercial

outfits, residential buildings, or directly to the grid during peak periods.

[23], [24]

Time-of-use

(T-O-U)

pricing

TOU provides different costs of energy at off-peak and peak periods. This is done to

encourage charging during off-peak periods and reduce strain on the grid.

[25], [26]

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Table 6. EV control strategies

S/N

Control

strategy

Description

References

Charging

station

control

EV charging facilities adhere to strict standards to ensure safety, connectivity, precision,

and optimal performance.

[28], [29]

Thermal

management

control

Thermal management of EV charging operation performs crucial roles of safety, optimal

operation, and lifespan improvement of EVs. This control keeps the electric motors,

power electronic devices, and battery banks at their optimal operating temperatures.

[30], [31]

Battery

management

control

Battery management control, such as cell balancing, state-of-health (SOH) control, and

state-of-charge (SOC) control, exerts over the battery bank or individual battery and the

associated electronic devices to prevent overcharging and ensure the safety of users.

[32], [33],

[34]

Motor

control

Motor control strategies such as pulse-width modulation (PWM), direct torque control

(DTC), and field-oriented control (FOC), regulate the motor’s speed, provide fast and

accurate response, and improve motor efficiency.

[35], [36]

Table 7. Charging standards [37]

S/N

Charging category

Charger type and

phase

Common base

Supply interface

Anticipated output

SAE charging standard

Convenient charging

- 230V, AC (EU)

- 120V, AC (US)

On-board/single-

phase

Charging in the

residence or office.

Any accessible

outlet

-1.4kW/12A

-1.9kW/20A

Main charging

-400V, AC (EU)

-240V, AC (US)

On-board/single or

three-phase

Charging in the

private or public

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-4kW/17A

-8kW/32A

-19.2kW/80A

Fast charging

-208V-600V, AC

Off-board/ three-

phase

Commercial

charging station.

Supply interface

for EV

-50kW

-100kW

-200V-450V, DC

Off-board

Specific charging

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-40kW/80A

-200V-450V, DC

Specific charging

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-90kW/200A

-200V-600V, DC

Specific charging

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-240kW/400A

IEC charging standard

On-board/single-

phase

Charging in the

residence or office.

Any accessible

outlet

-4kW-7.5kW/16A

On-board/single or

three-phase

Charging in the

private or public

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-8kW-15kW/32A

On-board/ three-

phase

Commercial

charging station.

Supply interface

for EV

-60kW-

120kW/250A

Rapid charging, DC

Off-board

Specific charging

station.

Supply interface

for EV

-1000kW-

2000kW/400A

CHAdeMo charging standard

Rapid charging, DC

Off-board

Specific charging

station.

Supply interface

for EV

62.5kW/125A

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The authors equally contributed to the present

research at all stages, from the problem formulation

to the final findings and solution.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

The Tshwane University of Technology PDRF

Research Funding supported this work.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare

relevant to this article's content.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en_

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