Navigating the Prevailing Challenges of the Nigerian Power Sector
ERIC AKPOVIRORO OBAR1, ABDELWAHED TOUATI1, OLUWASEUN SIMON ADEKANLE2,
1Laboratory of Complex Cyber Physical Systems ENSAM, Hassan II University,
Casablanca, MOROCCO
2Genius Laboratory, Ecole Supérieure de Management, de Télécommunication et d’Informatique,
Rabat, MOROCCO
BENJAMIN AGAJELU
Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal University of Petroleum Resources,
Delta State, NIGERIA
LAINCE PIERRE MOULEBE
Laboratory of Complex Cyber Physical Systems ENSAM
Hassan II University
Casablanca, MOROCCO
NABILA RABBAH
Laboratory of Complex Cyber Physical Systems ENSAM
Hassan II University
Casablanca, MOROCCO
Abstract: - The Nigerian power sector continues to suffer from the resource curse. With the abundance of natural
and renewable energy resources, somehow the Nigerian power sector has failed to meet the energy demand. Over
the years, lack of political will and inadequate investments as regards the generation, transmission and
distribution of electricity have led to very costly outages. The frequent collapse of the national grid has led to use
of diesel/gasoline generators as a stop gap measure for producing electricity. However, this approach significantly
increases the cost of production of goods/services (especially with the Russia-Ukraine war) and pollutes the
environment/ecosystem.
The objective of this paper is to take and in-depth analysis of the problems of the Nigerian power sector
beginning with the regulatory framework to the different actors of the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry NESI
(The Gas producers, The Nigerian Gas Company, The Generation Companies, The Transmission Company of
Nigeria and the Distribution Companies). Our goal is to achieve a fundamental balance between the affordability,
reliability and sustainability of electricity, otherwise known as the energy trilemma.
Key-Words: - Energy trilemma, Geographical Sector Coupling, GENCOs, TCN, DISCOs, NBET, NERC
Received: May 27, 2021. Revised: May 26, 2022. Accepted: June 24, 2022. Published: July 20, 2022.
1 Introduction
The deregulation of the Nigerian Power Sector did
lead to the privatization of the Generation and
Distribution Companies (GENCOs and DISCOs)
with the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN)
under the sole control of the Federal Government of
Nigeria (FGN). The goal was to get investors who
would bring in the needed investment and impetus
required to fix the electricity crisis in Nigeria).
However, years after the privatization of the power
sector, the peak transmission capability of TCN is a
poultry 5801.60MW[1]. And this, for a population of
202 million[2]. For years Nigerians in the private and
public sector have had to rely on the use of
diesel/gasoline generators for the production of
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goods and services (despite the economic,
environmental and health implications). In fact, the
2022 budget of the FGN did earmark 104 billion
Naira(252 million dollars) for the purchase,
maintenance and fueling of generators for some of its
agencies[3]. But even this alternative to the national
grid is fast becoming a non-viable solution due to the
ever-growing cost of fuel. The Manufacturer’s
Association of Nigeria (MAN), the Broadcasting
Organization of Nigeria (BON) and even the
Association of Licensed Telecommunications
Operators in Nigeria all lament the high operational
cost of production of goods/services due to the high
cost of diesel which sells for over 700 Naira per liter.
And so bearing in mind the inextricable link between
the socio-economic development of any country and
the availability and affordability of electricity in that
country[4], our goal is to take a panoramic view at
the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry and zoom in
on the challenges that bedevil the electricity value
chain. We would begin with the regulatory
framework to the different actors of the Nigerian
Electricity Supply Industry. Having identified the
problems, we would then propose solutions and
introduce the notion of geographical sector coupling
of the grid so as to maximize the primary energy
resources of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria and
hence balance the energy trilemma.
Figure 1: The Eleven DISCOs [3]
1. Research Methodology
We began this research with literature review of
the prevailing challenges of the Nigerian Power
Sector. This was followed by consultations and
industrial visits of the major stakeholders of the NESI
(The Gas Producers, The Gas Transporter NGC, The
GENCOs, The TCN, The DISCOs & The
Consumers) for the collection of data (primary &
secondary data). The mix of qualitative and
quantitative data was the approach used in this study.
2 Problem Formulation
Taking a zoom at the Nigerian power sector
we see that the population with access to electricity
is about 62%[5]. In other words, there is the need to
ensure reliable, affordable, sustainable and modern
energy (SDG7) for the 38% of Nigerians living
without access to electricity. We also need to make
sure that the 62% of Nigerians with access to
electricity, do have access to uninterrupted power
supply. Simply put, our task is to guarantee the
seventh sustainable development goal in Africa’s
largest Economy. And to do this we need to take a
panoramic view of the regulatory framework to the
different actors of the Nigerian Electricity Supply
Industry NESI(The Gas producers, The Nigerian Gas
Company NGC otherwise known as the Gas
transporter, The Generation Companies, The
Transmission Company of Nigeria and the
Distribution Companies).
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Problems as regards the regulatory
framework of NESI
1) Unfortunately, the attempt at privatization which
was aimed at revamping the power sector was
skewed to benefit politically connected bidders and
not the technically competent ones[9].
2) The fact that electricity has been on the concurrent
legislative list for areas that are not covered by the
National Grid. Yet private investors and state
governments have not been properly incentivized to
play the fundamental role of funding the power
sector.
3) The huge dependence on spare part importation
due to lack of local manufacturing companies
capable of producing power system equipments.
4)The instability of the Nigerian naira and the
problem of scarce foreign exchange needed for the
purchase of equipments and spare parts. [6]
5) Complacency on the part of the GENCOs &
DISCOs(who have failed to scale up their capacity to
produce and distribute electricity) due to poor
supervision on the part of NERC as regards the
privatization contract which is supposed to be
periodically reviewed.
6) Heavy dependence on gas for electricity
generation.
2.2 Problems as regards the Gas producers
& Transporter (NGC)
1) The gas producers, the Nigerian Gas Company
and indeed the entire power sector continues to suffer
from the willful vandalization of gas pipelines by
vandals. This in turn leads to inadequate supply of
gas to the GENCOs[6].
2) Inefficient maintenance of gas facilities and
pipelines. The above sometimes leads to low gas
pressure[6] and the delivery of off-spec gas to
GENCOs
3) Liquidity issues as the Gas producers/transporter
always receive late payments for gas supplied to the
GENCOs
4) Gas flaring which leads to economic losses and
environmental degradation[7]
2. Problems as regards the GENCOs
1) The GENCOs are also victims of the vandalization
of pipelines, inefficient maintenance of gas facilities
which result in the supply off-spec gas to the
GENCOs. These result in inadequate generation of
electricity due to gas constraints.
Figure 2: Research methodology
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2) The frequent request/order by the National Control
Center to reduce the quantity of electricity produced
by the GENCOs due to load rejection by the DISCOs
or due to limitations of the electric grid.
3) Lack of enthusiasm on the part of GENCOs to
increase or invest in their installed or available
capacity owing to the constraints of both the National
Grid and the distribution networks.
4) Liquidity issues owing to the late and incomplete
payment of the GENCOs by the Nigerian Bulk
Electricity Trading Company NBET.
5) In a bid to maximize profit, the practice of
preventive maintenance is often neglected. Top
management of GENCOs are often reluctant to
authorize the shutting down of generating units for
routine inspection schedules.
6) Huge discrepancy between the installed and
available capacity in some power plants due to
obsolete and dilapidated generating units in some
power stations
2. Problems as regards the TCN
1) The inability of TCN to wheel the available
capacity of the GENCOs
2) Inadequate grid coverage of Nigeria as a result of
insufficient investments on transmission lines
3) High Transmission losses (47%-11%)[8]
4) Harassment and sometimes kidnapping (by
locals) of TCN officials who patrol the transmission
lines during intervention or inspection schedules
5) Terrain and vegetation challenges as transmission
line routes go through swamps and forests with very
fast regrowth
6) Earth faults as a result of vegetation challenges
which sometimes cascade into system collapse
7) Willful vandalization of transmission towers
8) The use of vehicles to patrol transmission lines
that go through swamps and thick forests instead of
surveillance helicopters
9) Lack of stringing equipments for transmission
lines
10) Frequency rise and over voltages as a result of
load rejection by the DISCOs
74,766,3 80
115
360
225 220
290
150
38,7
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Unavailable Generation Capability(MW)
Stations
THE UN-UTILIZED GENERATION CAPABILITY FOR
MONDAY 19/07/2021 AS AT 0600HRS DUE TO GAS
CONSTRAINTS
130
170 162
107
40 48 32,7 29
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
UNAVAILABLE GENERATION CAPABILITY (MW)
STATIONS
THE UN-UTILIZED GENERATION CAPABILITY FOR
MONDAY 19/07/2021 AS AT 0600HRS DUE TO LOW
LOAD DEMAND BY THE DISCOS
Figure 4: The un-utilized generation capability for
monday 19/07/2021 as at 0600hrs due to low load
demand by the discos[9]
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11) Partial and total grid outage
Figure 7: System Collapse Update from 01 January
2010- 20 July 2021
2. Problems as regards the DISCOs
1) Ageing and Infrastructural decay of distribution
grid networks
2) Obsolete communication equipment[9]
3) Voluntary or involuntary load rejection
4) Insulation failure due to lightning strikes[10]
5) Little or no Investments in the distribution grid
networks
6)Bad feeder pillars and overloaded
transformers[11]
7) Substandard distribution lines[12]
8) Little or no maintenance of the distribution grid
networks. Customers sometimes have to replace
burnt transformers in their areas and even pay for the
connection of these transformers to the distribution
grid network
9) Inadequate supply of electricity to consumers and
poor customer relations
10) Lack of regular training and low staff morale[9]
11) 22% Electricity theft[8]
12) Liquidity crunch challenge with poor and late
remittance of funds collected (by the DISCOs) from
end users to the Nigerian Bulk Electricity Trading
Plc NBET[13]
13) Corruption on the part of Distribution company
officials who collect electricity bills[14]
14) Neglect of economically poorer areas by the
DISCOs and preference for customers who seem
susceptible to pay their bills.
15) Lack of meters and estimated billing of
consumers despite efforts by the national assembly
to criminalize estimated billing
Table 1: Generation Profile: National Statistics[15]
Generation Profile : National Statistics
MW
Peak demand forecast (Connected +Suppressed load)
28850
Daily Available Generation
4795.8
All-time peak Gen. ever attained
5801.6
Maximum peak generation capacity to date
7851.2
The un-utilized generation capability for MONDAY
19/07/2021 as at 0600Hrs due to low load demand by
the DISCOs
718.7
The un-utilized generation capability for MONDAY
19/07/2021 as at 0600Hrs due to gas constraints
1779.1
Table 2: Allocated load for Lagos and Abuja as at
Monday 19/07/2021
DISCO
ALLOCATED LOAD(MW)
Abuja
455.50
Ikeja
549.55
Figure 8: Transmission Capability of the Nigerian
Grid
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Table 3: Average Power Generated Vs Installed
Capacity of the GENCOs(19/07/2021)
With the bulk price of 1MWh for gas power plants
being NGN29,620, it therefore means that if the
gas constraint problem of 19/07/2021 did last for
an hour, a day, a week or a month, the NESI would
have lost NGN52,696,942.00 in one hour,
NGN1,264,726,608.00 in one day,
NGN8,853,086,256.00 in one week or
NGN37,941,798,240.00 in a month. Furthermore,
the un-utilized generation capability for Monday
19/07/2021 as at 0600Hrs (due to gas constraints
and low demand by the DISCOs captured in figure
5) far out way the load allocations for Abuja
Distribution Company and the IKEJA Distribution
Companies as captured in table 2
3 Problem Solution
The roadmap of solutions to the numerous challenges
of the Nigerian Power Sector must take into
cognizance the numerous problems of the different
stakeholders of the power sector.
3.1 Solutions as regards the regulatory
framework of NESI
1) The depoliticization of the activities of the power
sector. Going forward, the practice of citing critical
and key infrastructure based on the wimps and
caprices of government officials should be
disregarded and discarded beyond redemption.
Power stations should be cited at proximity to fuel
resources for obvious reasons. And likewise,
Substations should be cited close identified load
centers.
2) The realization of the impact of Gas flaring on
electricity growth[16] and the development of
policies for the maximization of gas resources
3) Proper commissioning of power plants and
substations with preliminary tests on all aspects of
the systems so as to identify areas of the system
susceptible to fail with the goal of proffering
adequate solutions to the problems.
Power Station
Turbine
Average
Power
Generated
MW
Installed
Capacity
MW
A.E.S
GAS
0
270
AFAM IV-V
GAS
110.88
300
AFAM VI
GAS
421.96
650
ALAOJI NIPP
GAS
194.96
504
ASC0
GAS
0
AZURA NIPP
GAS
416.9
461
DADIN KOWA
HYDRO
34.46
39
DELTA
GAS
430.7
915
EGBIN ST1-5
STEAM
619.42
1100
EGBIN ST6
STEAM
0
220
GBARAIN
NIPP
GAS
0
225
GEREGU GAS
GAS
268.6
439
GEREGU NIPP
GAS
109.57
435
IBOM
GAS
0
198
IHOVBOR
NIPP
GAS
0
337.5
JEBBA
HYDRO
287.25
540
KAINJI
HYDRO
198.08
800
ODUKPANI
NIPP
GAS
198.19
625
OKPAI
GAS/STEAM
176.75
480
OLORUNSOGO
GAS
GAS
119.84
336
OLORUNSOGO
NIPP
GAS
0
750
OMOKU
GAS
40.08
150
OMOTOSHO
GAS
GAS
109.13
336.8
OMOTOSHO
NIPP
GAS
0
500
PARAS
ENERGY
GAS
53.35
132
RIVERS IPP
GAS
0.79
180
SAPELE
STEAM
51.02
720
SAPELE
GAS
0
300
SAPELE NIPP
GAS
56.46
500
SHIRORO
HYDRO
234.54
600
Total=4207.27
Total=13179.3
4795,8
718,7
1779,1
Daily Available Generation(MW) Vs. The Un-utilized
Generation(MW) for Monday 19/07/2021
Daily Available Generation
The un-utililized generation capability (for MONDAY
19/07/2021 as at 0600Hrs due to low load demand
by the DISCOs)
The un-utililized generation capability (for MONDAY
19/07/2021 as at 0600Hrs due to low load demand
by the DISCOs)
Figure 9: Daily Available Generation (MW) Vs.
The Un-utilized Generation (MW) for Monday
19/07/2021[9]
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4) The diversification of resources used in the
production of electricity. Table 4 shows that 20
states of the federation are endowed with primary
energy resources which could be used for onsite
production and distribution of electricity.
5) The use of Service Level Agreements to deter the
DISCOs from voluntary and involuntary load
rejection
6) The review of the contract with the DISCOs with
the goal of proffering solutions to the existing
problems. The DISCOs should be ready to invest or
partner with other investors to strengthen the
distribution networks and perfect electricity service
delivery to Nigerians.
7) The procurement of only brand-new power plants
and state of the art auxiliaries and not phased out
equipments from developed countries.
8) The promotion of local factories for the
production of locally manufactured products and
spare parts
9) The realization of the fact that electric power is
on the concurrent legislative list. And as such, the
federal and state governments both have
fundamental roles to play both in the regulation and
funding of the power sector. It is therefore of
primordial importance for the different state
governments to consolidate and compliment the
efforts of the federal government as regards the
funding of the Nigerian Power Sector.
10) The payment of huge and lingering electricity
bills of government agencies[17]
11) The encouragement of rich, illustrious and
philanthropic Nigerians to either invest or finance
power projects in their communities’ in line with the
National Power System Development Master Plan.
12) The incorporation of more cogeneration
technology in the Nigerian Power Sector[18] to
promote energy efficiency, reduce cost and reduce
GHG emission to the atmosphere
13) Review of the metering contracts to companies
who have done very little to solve the electricity
meter deficit in Nigeria. The Meter Asset Providers
and the National Mass Metering Program put in
place by the government should be strengthened to
meet their objective not just on paper but on the
field. It would also be of tremendous help to engage
more companies with licenses of no objection for
metering to help in the supply of meters to the
DISCOs in order to end the era of arbitrary or
estimated billing.
14) A reorientation of investors who engage in
diesel/gasoline generator importation to Solar PV
generators[4] to accelerate the decarbonization of
the Nigerian economy and boost the rural
electrification project by the Rural Electrification
Agency
15) The Nigerian Electricity Regulatory
Commission should be unbiased in its role,
effective, efficient and corruption-free, while
maintaining its independence[16]
3.2 Solutions as regards the Gas producers
& Transporter(NGC)
1) Onward location of power plants at proximity to
fuel resources to avoid the supplementary cost of
building and maintaining lengthy pipelines, pigging
stations and compressor stations.
2) To reduce drastically the risk of pipeline
vandalization
3) To guarantee the delivery of dry gas
The importance of reducing the production cost of
gas cannot be over emphasized as it translates into
cheaper rate of bulk electricity generation, more
dividends for shareholders, bonus to the staff, more
profit retention which could be used for the
expansion of the gas sector thereby creating
employment and great industrial prospects for the
economy.
Figure 10: West African Power Pool Zones A & B
[18]
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3.3 Solutions as regards the GENCOs
1) Gas contracts between the GENCOs, the gas
producers and transporters would help guarantee
reliable access to dry or consumer- grade natural gas
and help address the problem of late payments of gas
supplied to the GENCOs
2) The encouragement of the DISCOs to partner
with the GENCOs for onsite production and
distribution of electricity as an alternate route to the
grid in order to avoid stranded generation (the drop
load or go down order of “X”MW by NCC as a
result of TCN grid constraints). This would
definitely reduce the cost of building transmission
lines
3) The encouragement of the eligible customer
regime and not its reversal especially in regions
where the DISCOs reject load. The reversal of the
eligible customer regime could push industries to
captive generation of electricity instead of returning
to the status quo ante bellum of poor service delivery
by the DISCOs. Culminating in a loss of revenue
for the entire Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry.
4) The encouragement of the West African Power
Pool project with the goal of promoting and
developing infrastructure for power generation and
transmission. And to ensure the coordination of
electric power exchange between the member states
of ECOWAS.
5) The practice of proactive and responsive
strategies of maintenances by the GENCOs. The
importance of proactive and responsive
maintenance cannot be overemphasized as this will
help bridge the huge gap between the installed and
available capacities of some GENCOs (see table 3)
3.4 Solutions as regards TCN
1) Investments to build new transmission lines,
strengthen the existing transmission grid network
and to ensure adequate coverage of the Nigerian
nation. With the exponential growth of the Nigerian
population, the Siemens Electricity roadmap should
be one among the numerous investment projects to
light up the Nigerian economy.
2) Massive sensitization campaigns against the
harassment of TCN officials who patrol the
transmission lines during intervention or inspection
schedules
3)Removal of trees from transmission line paths to
avoid earth faults which could cascade into system
collapse.
4) The use of FACTS for voltage improvement and
transmission loss reduction[19]
5) Massive sensitization campaigns against the
willful vandalization of transmission towers
6) The use of surveillance helicopters to patrol
transmission lines that go through swamps and thick
forests
7) The swift procurement of spare parts for planned
replacement of equipments
3. Solutions as regards the DISCOs
1) Adequate funding of distribution grid networks to
build and strengthen existing networks in order to
end the reign of voluntary or involuntary load
rejection.
2) The practice of proactive and responsive
maintenances strategies to ensure reliable supply of
electricity to consumers. This would bring to a halt
the practice of customers having to replace burnt
transformers and pay for their reconnection to the
distribution grid.
3) The implementation of the Nigerian Electricity
Regulatory Commission Electricity Theft and Other
Related Regulations, 2014
4) The provision of prepaid meters at affordable
prices for customers to end the regime of poor and
late remittance of funds collected (by the DISCOs)
from end users to the Nigerian Bulk Electricity
Trading Plc NBET
Figure 11: Transitional electricity market structure of
the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry [20]
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4 Discussion
Implementing the solutions listed above would no
doubt require colossal investments (private public
partnerships) in the power sector. According to the
world bank, it would take about $100 billion over the
next ten years to solve Nigeria’s electricity quagmire
(Generation, Transmission and Distribution)[20].
Also, successive governments have shown little or
no political will to solve the electricity crisis. Most
Ministers of power assume office and spend their 4-
year tenure trying to understand the problems that
plague the power sector while setting out to do very
little to solve the issues. And the cycle continues
with every regime. This paper proffers a step by step
approach using geographical system coupling for
the resolution of the problems in the Nigerian power
sector. The notion of geographical sector coupling
in this paper refers to the use of primary sources of
energy in each geopolitical zone for the onsite
production and distribution of electricity in that
zone/region with a point of common coupling to the
national grid. Table 4 shows the six geo-political
zones with the primary energy resources of the
region. Once the problem of electricity is solved in a
state using its primary energy resources for onsite
production and distribution of electricity with a point
of common coupling to the national grid, it would be
much easier to replicate the concept to the other
states and geopolitical zones of the country and even
beyond.
Table 4: Primary Energy Resources in the Six
Geopolitical Zones
Figure 12: Distributed Generation with PCC
5 Conclusion
The above present a formidable strategy and
road map to solving the prevailing challenges of the
Nigerian power sector, but we must remember that
culture will always eat strategy for breakfast as Peter
Drucker would say. And as such, developing values
in tandem with the execution of the salient points
mentioned above is of inestimable importance. The
different stakeholders of the electricity value chain
must resolve earnestly to change the tide and give
reliable service delivery to Nigerians.
It is imperative to note that with abundance
of human and natural resources, Nigeria has both the
potential of becoming an electricity sufficient nation
and the capacity of gaining foreign exchange from
the sale of electricity to other African countries.
However, this would only be a reality if adequate
policies, regulations and funding are put in place as
regards all the stakeholders bearing in mind their
individual challenges.
References:
[1] “Transmission Company of Nigeria.”
[Online]. Available:
https://www.tcn.org.ng/blog_post_sidebar11
0.php. [Accessed: 14-Aug-2021].
[2] “Nigeria Overview.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/niger
ia/overview. [Accessed: 14-Aug-2021].
[3] “FG budgets N104bn to maintain, purchase
generators in 2022.” [Online]. Available:
https://punchng.com/fg-budgets-n104bn-to-
maintain-purchase-generators-in-2022/.
[Accessed: 03-May-2022].
[4] E. A. Obar, A. Touati, and N. Rabbah,
“Embedded Generation Using Shared Solar,”
vol. 01026, pp. 1–7, 2021.
[5] “• Nigeria: electricity access, by area 2019 |
Statista.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1119633/s
Primary Energy
Resource
Geo-political
zone
State
Hydro
North East
Adamawa(kiri Dam)
Hydro
North East
Gombe (Dadin Kowa Dam)
Coal
North East
Bauchi
Hydro
North West
Kaduna (Shiroro Dam)
Coal
North West
Zamfara
Hydro
North Central
Niger (Jebba)
Hydro
North Central
Niger ( Kainji )
Coal
North Central
Benue
Coal
North Central
Plateau
Hydro
South West
Ogun ( Kainji )
Hydro
South West
Oyo (Ikere Gorge)
Oil/Gas
South West
Ondo
Coal
South West
Ondo
Oil/Gas
South East
Abia
Coal
South East
Enugu
Oil/Gas
South East
Imo
Oil/Gas
South South
Akwa Ibom
Oil/Gas
South South
Bayelsa
Oil/Gas
South South
Cross River
Oil/Gas
South South
Delta
Oil/Gas
South South
Edo
Oil/Gas
South South
Rivers
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS
DOI: 10.37394/232016.2022.17.24
Eric Akpoviroro Obar, Abdelwahed Touati,
Oluwaseun Simon Adekanle,
Benjamin Agajelu, Laince Pierre Moulebe, Nabila Rabbah
E-ISSN: 2224-350X
242
Volume 17, 2022
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Contribution of individual authors to
the creation of a scientific article
(ghostwriting policy)
ERIC AKPOVIRORO OBAR is the first author of this
paper.
ABDELWAHED TOUATI co-supervised this article in
his capacity as my PhD co-supervisor.
OLUWASEUN SIMON ADEKANLE gave insights as to
the problems of the gas producers and transporters (NGC)
BENJAMIN AGAJELU got primary data from some
power stations and gave insights as to the problems of the
Generation Companies in Nigeria
LAINCE PIERRE MOULEBE gave insights as to the
problems of the Distribution Companies in Nigeria
NABILA RABBAH supervised the writeup of this article
in her capacity as my PhD Director/Supervisor
-
Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (Attribution 4.0
International , CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
_US
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on POWER SYSTEMS
DOI: 10.37394/232016.2022.17.24
Eric Akpoviroro Obar, Abdelwahed Touati,
Oluwaseun Simon Adekanle,
Benjamin Agajelu, Laince Pierre Moulebe, Nabila Rabbah
E-ISSN: 2224-350X
243
Volume 17, 2022