The Relationship Between the Loss of Household Income and
Socioeconomic Variables in the Second COVID-19 Lockdown
YESSY FITRIANI 1 SEMUKASA PHILIMON2, KARTIKA SETYANINGSIH SUNARDI3
KARLINDA4 DESI METRIANA ERZA5 APRI YULDA6 TIARA NURCIHIKITA7
VIVI YOSEFRI YANTI8
1 Department of Medical Informatics, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
2 Department of Health Education and Behavioral Science, Universitas Indonesia
Pondok Cina, Beji, Depok City, West Java
INDONESIA
3 Depatement of Hospital Administration Permata Indonesia Health Polytechnic
Jl. Pandean II, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta, INDONESIA
4 Department of Health Administration, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
5 Department of Health Administration, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
6Department of Medical Informatics, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
7Department of Health Administration, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
8Department of Digital Bussiness, University of Muhammadiyah Muara Bungo
Jl. Rang Kayo Hitam, Cadika, Rimbo Tengah, Bungo Regency, Jambi
INDONESIA
Abstract: - Although Covid-19 started in Wuhan, China, on January 30th 2020 it was declared a public health
emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO). The issue was no longer for China alone. Instead, every
country was called upon to take urgent and aggressive measures against the spread of the deadly virus. This paper
aims to examine the relationship between the loss of household income and socioeconomic variables. This was a
quantitative study with a cross-sectional approach. The data of this study were collected from a representative
sample of 210 households from 21 villages in Wakiso District. This paper focuses on the impact of income loss
on a range of social-economic indicators. The results showed that two variables had strong effects on income
reduction: (1) education, with a P value of 0.042 OR 2.124 and (2) medical insurance ownership, with a P value
of 0.012 OR 0.357. Thus, the increase in income was associated with better health. We suggest that the
socioeconomically disadvantaged group requires additional support to strengthen their resilience to survive amid
the coronavirus global pandemic.
Key-Words: - household, income, social, economic, covid-19.
Received: March 15, 2024. Revised: August 13, 2024. Accepted: September 16, 2024. Published: October 17, 2024.
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
51
Volume 4, 2024
1. Introduction
Although the coronavirus disease of 2019 (Covid-19)
started in Wuhan, China, by January 30th 2020, it was
declared a public health emergency by the World
Health Organization, [1]. China was no longer the
only nation faced with this problem as all nations
were urged to act swiftly and forcefully to stop the
spread of this deadly virus. Many nations
implemented preventive measures to slow the spread
of the coronavirus, such as banning public meetings;
implementing travel bans to the entire nation; closing
places of worship, schools, and colleges; as well as
complete lockdowns, [2], [3]. However, Covid-19
cases increased rapidly. This virus spread over all
continents of the world, with new cases being
reported every week. Reports showed that Uganda
received the first case of Covid–19 on March 21st,
2020 and since, then the virus has affected the social,
economic and political well-being of people,
rendering them helpless, [4], [5] Despite continued
efforts globally to bring Covid-19 on its knees,
people’s obedience and collaboration on the
preventive measures is essential since efforts aimed
at combating the virus are affected by people’s
awareness and preparedness towards Covid-19.
Nonetheless, knowledge and attitudes toward
infectious diseases are usually related to the panic
among populations and this, in most cases,
complicates the preventive measures put in place to
curb the spread of diseases, [6].
The rapid growth of small towns has affected
some measures put in place to curb the spread of
Covid-19. The majority of Ugandans have found
physical distancing challenging due to the high
population in town centers. Although the World
Health Organization recommends the frequent
washing of hands using soap and putting on face
masks, the majority of Ugandans are finding these
preventive measures difficult to maintain since many
live in slums or informal houses. Such residences are
characterized by unhygienic conditions plus a lack of
proper access to clean water, [7]. However, research
has shown that since 2018, Uganda has been working
under a health care crisis which was mainly caused
by disease outbreaks from neighboring countries like
Congo. This forced Uganda to mobilize border
surveillance teams to carry out screening on most of
the country’s border points and major airports. This
was aimed at battling past diseases like measles,
yellow fever, plus Crimean Congo hemorrhagic
fever, [8]. But when it came to Covid-19, these
methods did not work.
The border surveillance teams were overworked
and as a result, the government of Uganda resorted to
closing entire borders, including the airport, [5].
Some research has shown that lockdowns have
worked very well to the extent that the pandemic has
gradually reduced and many are suggesting that it
should be considered as an effective public health
measure, [9]. However, other researchers argue
differently, since applying lockdown as a measure to
curb the spread of Covid-19 is irrefutably complex.
This is because this measure has extensive social,
political and economic effects, [10]. Despite the
Covid-19 pandemic affecting the social, political, and
economic way of life of many people, the lockdowns
which were imposed on Ugandans left many people
unemployed while others closed their businesses.
Restrictions were put on both local and international
transportation, tourism, plus industrial inputs
bringing the economy of Uganda to its knees. Besides
that, disadvantaged communities like those who stay
in slums faced severe income loss, teenage
pregnancies, and child labor, [3] yet refugees staying
in small urban centers, experienced accelerated rapid
income insecurity and increased gender violence due
to the mandatory lockdown, [4], [11].
Several studies have shown that due to Covid-19
lockdowns, many families started sleeping hungry
due to food prices which were increasing daily, yet
their incomes did not increase. Those who depended
on daily incomes were greatly affected, [12].
However, it's worth noting that the majority of the
people living in Uganda are youth whose earnings are
just increasing as per their age. Yet studies have
shown that there is a serious relationship between age
and income, demonstrating that those with higher age
brackets tend to be richer than those with lower age
brackets, [13], [14]. Therefore, the two-year
lockdown rendered Ugandan youth unproductive,
hence reducing their incomes and exposing them to
poverty and health inequalities. In addition, several
models were developed to capture the impact of
Covid-19 on social and economic wellbeing and
results showed that the majority of households,
especially those in the continents of Africa and South
Asia, would be heavily affected, leading them to
poverty and food insecurity, [15].
Although many governments believed that
lockdowns would reduce Covid-19 cases, the impacts
of these lockdowns on people's economic welfare
were not carefully studied, for example how people
would complete months of lockdown with their
income reducing day per day. For the case of people
with disabilities, it was worse yet. Studies have
shown that there is a strong relationship between
people with disabilities and poor health status. There
are high chances of them reporting damaging
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
52
Volume 4, 2024
behaviours like smoking, drinking, obesity, and
physical inactivity. In addition, people with
disabilities still face discrimination, even in some
workplaces. Hence, there are higher chances for them
to lose their businesses and employment posts,
leading to a reduction in incomes, [16], [17].
The majority of Ugandans are farmers and, on
several occasions, Uganda is referred to as a food
basket for many East African countries. But during
the Covid-19 pandemic, many Ugandans could not
afford adequate health nutrient diets. This was so
because Covid-19 reduced people’s incomes
worldwide, [18]. Furthermore, despite studies
showing that a huge number of people went out of the
poverty zone to middle-class status in developing
countries, the extent to which education levels
influence income increase or reduction needs to be
examined, [19], [20]. Besides that, several health
promotional interventions which were aimed at
curbing the spread of the Covid-19 virus turned into
stigma to the extent that those who were sick got
scared of even reporting to several healthcare centers.
Yet research is showing that stigma of any kind
undermines efforts determined to stop the spread of
diseases, [21].
However, in most developing countries, women
were less privileged than men, [22]. Thus, women
leading households and businesses faced great danger
during the Covid-19 pandemic and had their incomes
reduced. On the contrary, other research showed that
households with married status have higher incomes
compared to those with single status, [23], [24]. But
during the lockdown in Uganda, the case was
different, since the greater the number of dependents
the family had the more venerable that family would
be. Although the government of Uganda planned a
support strategy to help those who lost their jobs and
businesses due to the lockdown, the majority of
Ugandans never got their jobs back and many small-
and large-scale businesses ended up closing. This
was not only witnessed in Uganda, but many
countries witness relevant loss of work and income
reduction, [25], due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
2. Problem Formulation
The objective of this study was to investigate the
relationship between income loss and socio-
economic factors (loss of job, closure of business,
ability to afford food prices, ability to have a
balanced diet, knowledge of the reason why the
government implemented the lockdown, age,
education level, household size, gender, marital
status, employment status, medical insurance,
whether respondents directly or indirectly contacted
patients suffering from Covid-19, whether or not
respondents faced discrimination by other people
when suffering from Covid-19, and the best ways of
preventing Covid-19). Furthermore, the authors
wanted to investigate which factors had a direct
influence on income reduction.
3. Methods
The researchers conducted a cross-sectional study
which started on June 20th and ended on July 30th,
2021 during the second lockdown. The researchers
selected 210 households from 21 villages in Wakiso
district. From these 21 villages, the researchers chose
10 households per village. The researchers focused
on villages which were located in small towns since
they were more likely to have contact with Covid-19.
The researchers chose respondents who were
household heads who were aged at least 18 years old
and were willing to participate in the survey.
Household heads who did not meet the above criteria
were not eligible to participate in this study. Given
that Covid-19 is new with few studies being done so
far, the researchers used a standardized structure, i.e.,
the pre-coded questionnaire. The questionnaire was
validated and tested before use. The researchers
carried out a pilot survey of 20 individuals in order to
check whether or not the tool had issues.
All variables were analyzed and presented through
frequencies, proportions, means, and standard
deviations. A chi-square test was performed on
categorical variables to examine the relationship
between reduction in household income and socio-
economic factors (loss of job, closure of business,
ability to afford food prices, ability to have a
balanced diet, knowledge on the reason why the
government implemented the lockdown, age,
education level, household size, gender, marital
status, employment status, medical insurance,
whether respondents directly or indirectly contacted
patients suffering from Covid-19, whether or not
respondents faced discrimination by other people
when suffering from Covid-19, and the best ways of
preventing Covid-19). Most continuous variables
were broken down into categories which were Yes
and No as well as High and Low. The data were
analyzed using SPSS and the univariate, bivariate,
and multivariate were reported at a significance of
95% confidence interval.
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
53
Volume 4, 2024
4. Results
Table 1. The Distribution of Respondent’s
Characteristics
Categories
Frequency
Percentages
(%)
Gender
Male
113
53.8
Female
97
46.2
Age
Younger ones
129
61.4
Older ones
81
38.6
Education
Low level
74
35.2
High level
136
64.8
Household Size
Low
76
36.2
High
134
63.8
Marital Status
Single
93
44.3
Married
117
55.7
Employment Status
No
88
41.9
Yes
122
58.1
Do you have medical insurance?
No
159
75.7
Yes
51
24.3
Have you directly or indirectly contacted
patients suffering from Covid-19?
No
145
69
Yes
65
31
Do you feel that you would be discriminated by
other people if you contracted Covid-19?
No
76
36.2
Yes
134
63.8
Did you buy masks during the Covid-19
outbreak?
No
59
28.1
Yes
151
71.9
Was there anything inconvenient about the
mask you brought?
No
103
49
Yes
107
51
Did you find any difficulties in putting on the
mask?
No
92
43.8
Yes
118
56.2
Do you know the basic ways in controlling
Covid-19
No
79
37.6
Yes
131
62.4
Do you usually keep social distance to prevent
yourself from contracting Covid-19?
No
66
31.4
Yes
144
68.6
Do you usually wash your hands with soap/use
hand sanitizer to prevent yourself from
contracting Covid-19?
No
37
17.6
Yes
173
82.4
Do you usually wear a face mask to prevent
yourself from contracting Covid-19?
No
52
24.8
yes
158
75.2
Would you like to receive additional
information about Covid-19?
No
95
45.2
Yes
115
54.8
Loss of a job
No
124
59
Yes
86
41
Reduction in income
No
65
31
Yes
145
69
Closure of business
No
135
64.3
Yes
75
35.7
Smoking or chewing tobacco
No
168
80
Yes
42
20
Using alcohol such as waragi or beer
No
142
67.6
Yes
68
32.4
Using substances such as khat or marijuana
No
167
79.5
Yes
43
20.5
Undergoing physical activity such as jogging or
other sports
No
103
49
Yes
107
51
Sedentary lifestyle such as excessive watching of
TV
No
110
52.4
Yes
100
47.6
Binge eating
No
131
62.4
Yes
76
36.2
Whether or not respondents can afford the price
of food
No
87
41.4
Yes
123
58.6
Whether or not respondents have a
diverse/balanced diet
No
83
39.5
Yes
127
60.5
Whether or not respondents afford to travel to
a food market
No
83
39.5
Yes
127
60.5
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
54
Volume 4, 2024
Whether or not respondents can afford fuel for
cooking food
No
90
42.9
Yes
120
57.1
Whether or not respondents had access to
health care (HIV/STI testing)
No
122
58.1
Yes
88
41.9
Whether or not respondents know the reason
why the government put up the lockdown
No
78
37.1
Yes
132
62.9
Table 1 represents sample characteristics. The
majority of participants were men (53.8%) and
61.4% of participants were aged below the mean of
36 years. In total, 64.8% of respondents had basic or
secondary education, 63.8% of the sample had a high
household size, and 55.7% were married. Most of the
participants were employed (58.1%) but 75.7% of
participants lacked medical insurance. Furthermore,
the majority of respondents did not have direct or
indirect contact with patients suffering from Covid-
19. In addition to that, 63.8% out of the 100
respondents felt they would be discriminated against
by other people if they contracted Covid-19. But
71.9% bought masks during the Covid-19 outbreak
and 51% admitted that there was nothing wrong with
the mask they bought. Yet according to the analysis,
56.2% found difficulties in putting on their masks.
However, the majority of respondents (62.4%)
had basic knowledge of controlling Covid-19 and
68.6% reported keeping social distance in order to
prevent themselves from contracting Covid-19.
Almost all participants washed their hands with soap
or sanitizer to prevent Covid-19 (82.4%) and 75.2%
usually wear a face mask. Over half of the
participants were interested in receiving additional
information about Covid-19 (54.8%). Overall, 59%
reported job losses while 69% had their income
reduced. Furthermore, 75% of participants
experienced business closure.
Then, from the research, it was shown that 80%
never smoked or used tobacco and a huge number of
participants 67.6% never used alcohol. The majority
of participants did not use substances such as khat or
marijuana 79.5% and half of the respondents carry
out physical activities (51%). However, 52.4% had a
sedentary lifestyle such as watching TV excessively.
In addition, 62.4% practiced binge eating while
58.6% could afford the food prices. The majority of
participants could afford a balanced diet (60.5%) and
60.5% could afford to travel to a food market. Almost
half of the respondents (57.1%) could afford fuel for
cooking food yet 58.1% had access to health care.
The majority of participants had an idea as to why the
government implemented the lockdown (62.9%).
4.1 Bivariate Analysis
Table 2. The Relationship Between the Reduction in
Income and Several Variables (N=210)
Variable
P
value
(95%C. I)
Loss of job
0..004
1.349 - 4.872
Closure of business
0..010
1.210 - 4.575
Ability to afford food
prices
0.006
1.261 - 4.153
Ability to have a
balanced diet
0..004
1.297 - 4.287
Knowledge of the reason
why the government put
up the lockdown
0..034
1.045 - 3.458
Age
0..069
0.318 - 1.047
Education
0..057
0.980 - 3.270
Household size
0..636
0.466 - 1.594
Gender
0..759
0.609 - 1.973
Marital status
0..506
0.678 - 2.196
Employment status
0.029
0.271 - 0.935
Medical insurance
ownership
0..001
0.181 - 0.673
Whether or not
respondents directly or
indirectly contacted
patients suffering from
Covid-19
0..011
0.244 - 0.839
Whether or not
respondents feel that they
would be discriminated
against by other people if
they contracted Covid-19
0..020
1.112 - 3.676
Whether or not
respondents knew the
best ways of controlling
Covid-19
0.020
1.112 - 3.676
After conducting the chi-square test, it was
determined that there was a statistically significant
relationship between the loss of a job and the
reduction in income, with a P value of 0.004 (1.349
– 4.872 Cl 95%). In addition to that, the closure of
business had a statistically significant relationship
with the reduction in income, with a P value of 0.010
(1.210 – 4.575 Cl 95%). There was a strong
relationship between people’s ability to afford food
prices and the reduction in income, with a P value of
0.006 (1.261 – 4.153 Cl 95%). The ability to have a
balanced diet was associated with a reduction in
income as the P value was 0.004 (1.297 – 4.287 Cl
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
55
Volume 4, 2024
95%). Then, knowledge of the reason why the
government put up a lockdown was associated with
a reduction in income, with a P value of 0.034 (1.045
- 3.458 Cl% 95).
But there was no statistically significant
relationship between the age of respondents and the
reduction in income, with a P value of 0.069 (0.318
- 1.047 Cl 95%). Furthermore, there was no
statistically significant relationship between
education and the reduction in income, with a P
value of 0.057 (0.980 - 3.270 Cl 95%). Then, no
statistically significant relationship was observed
between household size and the reduction in income,
with a P value of 0.636 (0.466 - 1.594 Cl 95%).
Similarly, no statistically significant relationship
was observed between the gender of respondents
and the reduction in income, with a P value of 0.759
(0.609 - 1.973 Cl 95%). Marital status had no
statistically significant relationship with a reduction
in income. The P value of this was 0.506 (0.678 -
2.196 Cl 95%). Employment status had a P value of
0.029 (0.271 - 0.935 Cl 95%), having medical
insurance had a P value of 0.001 (0.181 - 0.673
Cl95%), and having directly or indirectly contacted
patients suffering from Covid-19 had a P value of
0.011 (0.244 - 0.839 Cl 95%). Whether or not
respondents feel they would be discriminated by
other people if they contracted Covid-19 had a P
value of 0.020 (1.112 - 3.676 Cl 95%). Then,
whether or not patients knew the best ways of
controlling Covid-19 had a P value of 0.020 (1.112
- 3.676 Cl 95%). These points had a statistically
significant relationship with a reduction in income.
4.2 Multivariate Analysis
The variables whose p-value was greater than 0.25
did not continue in the multivariate analysis.
However, variables whose p-value was less than 0.25
were analyzed using the multivariate analysis to see
which variate influenced income reduction.
Table 3. Results of the Multivariate Analysis of
Variables with Reduction in Income N=210
Variable
P
value
OR
(95%C.
I)
Loss of job
0.119
1.802
0.859 –
3.777
Closure of business
0.287
1.513
0.705 –
3.245
Ability to afford food
prices
0.330
1.483
0.671 –
3.280
Ability to have a
balanced diet
0.344
1.464
0.665 –
3.222
Knowledge of the
reason why the
government put up the
lockdown
0.061
1.960
0.969 –
3.967
Age
0.222
0.654
0.330 –
1.294
Education
0.042
2.124
1.028 –
4.385
Employment status
0.525
0.788
0.377 –
1.644
Medical insurance
ownership
0.012
0.357
0.159 –
0.798
Whether or not
respondents directly or
indirectly contacted
patients suffering from
Covid-19
0.409
0.732
0.348 –
1.536
Whether or not
respondents feel that
they would be
discriminated against
by other people if they
contracted Covid-19
0.762
1.118
0.544 –
2.294
Whether or not
respondents knew the
best ways of
controlling Covid-19
0.143
1.666
0.842 –
3.299
The authors carried out a multivariate analysis to
determine which variables had a strong effect on the
reduction in income. Out of the twelve variables that
were analyzed in multivariate analysis, ten did not
have an effect on reduction in income and these were:
knowledge of the reason why the government put up
the lockdown, with a P value of 0.061 and OR 1.96;
loss of job, with a P value of 0.119 and OR 1.802;
closure of business with a P value of 0.287 OR 1.513;
the ability to afford food prices, with a P value of
0.330 OR 1.483; the ability to have a balanced diet,
with a P value of 0.344 OR 1.464; age, with a P value
of 0.222 OR 0.654; employment status, with a P
value of 0.525 OR 0.788; whether or not respondents
directly or indirectly contacted patients suffering
from Covid-19, with a P value of 0.409 OR 0.732;
whether or not respondents feel that they would be
discriminated by other people if they contracted
Covid-19, with a P value of 0.762 OR 1.118; and
whether or not respondents knew the best ways of
controlling Covid-19, with a P value of 0.143 OR
1.666. Meanwhile, the two variables which had a
strong effect on the reduction in income were
education, with a P value of 0.042 OR 2.124 and
medical insurance ownership with a P value of 0.012
OR 0.357.
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
56
Volume 4, 2024
5. Discussion
The results of the univariate analysis found that less
than half of the respondents (41%) lost their jobs. The
results of this study are in line with the research of
Putra et al. in 2020, where in Indonesia, 4% of the
population had lost their jobs, [26]. In this study, the
authors found a statistically significant relationship
between loss of job and reduction in income, with a
P value of 0.004 (1.349 – 4.872 Cl 95%) after
carrying out a chi-square test. These findings
correspond with other studies which suggest that
there is a statistically significant relationship between
the loss of job and the reduction in income. Studies
that were carried out by the International Labor
Organization found that the pandemic caused
massive damage to both formal and informal
economies, which left men and women workers
vulnerable since the majority lost their jobs and
others went unpaid, [27]. Furthermore, a study that
was conducted in the Maranhao state of Brazil
indicated a relevant prevalence of loss of work and
income plus an acute association with appropriate
factors, [25].
The results of the univariate analysis found that
more than half of the respondents’ businesses were
closed (64%). The results of this study are in line with
research by Putra et al in 2020, where in Indonesia,
25 % of business owners had lost their businesses,
[26]. The closure of business had a statistically
significant relationship with the reduction in income,
with a P value of 0.010 (1.210 – 4.575 Cl 95%).
These results are in line with other studies. A study
that was conducted by the Department of Economics,
University of Illinois showed that most businesses
had varying beliefs on the dates the lockdowns were
to end. Furthermore, they found out that a majority of
small businesses were delicate and the delayed
opening of these businesses led to collapse, [17].
There was a strong relationship between people’s
ability to afford food prices and the reduction in
income. These results correspond with other studies
that suggest that there is a relationship between the
ability to afford food and the reduction in income. A
study in Nepal showed that participants faced food
insecurity due to increased prices of commodities and
food. Since factories and construction sites were
closed, poor daily laborers were the most affected
ones, [12]. In addition, projections show that people
who live mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast
Asia are likely to fall into life-threatening income
hardships and food insecurity, [15].
The ability to have a balanced diet was associated
with the reduction in income and this result is in line
with other studies that suggest that those with higher
incomes are more likely to have a balanced diet. A
report published by UNICEF, World Health
Organization, and World Food Program calls upon
governments to make new policies which will favor
low-income earners to afford a balanced diet, [28].
Extensive research has shown that a lot of people
suffered and consumed an unbalanced diet due to
Covid-19 lockdowns, [18]. Knowing the reason why
the government put up the lockdown was associated
with the reduction in income, with a P value of 0.034
(1.045 - 3.458 Cl% 95). This is so because a person’s
belief about how serious the disease or danger is is a
significant matter. Therefore, severity can be based
on medical consequences or personal beliefs about
how the condition or disease would affect lives. A
majority of workers stayed at home while many
business owners closed their businesses due to the
lockdowns which were implemented by the
government. These results are in line with other
studies which suggest that the people who knew why
the government put up lockdowns remained at home
and were not brutalized. However, they registered an
income decline since production was reduced.
There was no statistically significant relationship
between the age of respondents and the reduction in
income. The results of this study are in line with the
research of Morgan et al. in 2021 in the Lao PDR,
Myanmar, Philippines, and Viet Nam, [29]. The age
of the Household head is not associated with the
Covid-19-induced income decline in the pooled
sample. But it has some effects in some countries.
The findings from this study do not correspond with
other studies that suggest that there is a significant
relationship between age and income. Extensive
studies show that age is a substantial cause of
inequality. Some scholars even suggest that the
majority of young people pose the least wealth are
mainly those below the age of 35, [13], [14], [30].
Nonetheless, there was no statistically significant
relationship between education and a reduction in
income. These results do not correspond with other
studies which suggest that education is closely
related to levels of income, [31]. In addition, no
statistically significant relationship was observed
between household size and reduction in income. Our
results do not match with other studies that have
found that families with high household sizes face a
reduction in income. Research has shown that
consumption increases as the number of household
members increases.
No statistically significant relationship was
observed between the gender of respondents and
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DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
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reduction in income. Our findings differ from
extensive research which suggests that there is a
relationship between gender and reduction in income.
Some scholars argue that women are more likely to
work in informal sectors, ending up earning lower
wages compared to men. While others suggest that
unequal access to education, health services, and
finance is prevalent between men and women,
thereby creating a strong relationship between gender
and reduction in income, [22], [32], [33].
Furthermore, marital status had no statistically
significant relationship with the reduction in income.
This result does not correspond with other studies
which suggest that there is a statically significant
relationship between marital status and reduction in
income. For example, a study that was carried out by
Steven Henry Dunga from North-West University,
South Africa showed that married heads of
households had higher incomes compared to single,
divorced, and widowed people, [23]. While other
scholars suggest that marriage confers health-
protective benefits in part through pooled income
relative to other marital statuses, [24].
The results of the univariate analysis found that
more than half of the respondents (58%) had an
employment status. The results of this study are in
line with the research of Selden and Berdahl (2020).
Nearly two-thirds of Hispanic people (64.5%)
considered at high risk for coronavirus live with at
least one person who is unable to work from home,
[34]. On the contrary, employment status had a
statistically significant relationship with the
reduction in income. Our findings are in line with
other studies which suggest that there is a relationship
between employment status and incomes. A study
carried out using baseline data from part of the Dutch
prospective cohort study found that there was a
strong relationship between employment status and
income, [35]. In addition, a study which was carried
out in Korea showed that there was a strong
relationship between employment status and a
reduction in income among workers with disabilities,
[16]. Medical insurance ownership had a strong
relationship with a reduction in income. Households
which had medical insurance were less likely to face
a reduction in income since major medical bills
would be covered by insurance. Our findings
correspond with other studies which suggest that
there is a relationship between having medical
insurance and income, [36].
Having directly or indirectly contacted patients
suffering from Covid-19 had a statistically significant
relationship with a reduction in income. This could
be because every person who was found in contact
with patients suffering from Covid-19 was isolated
and quarantined for 14 days. To any business person
that is a sure reduction in income and loss of jobs.
These findings are in line with other studies and
reports which suggest that having direct or indirect
contact with patients suffering from Covid-19 has a
strong relationship with a reduction in incomes, [37].
However, the respondents’ feeling that they would be
discriminated against by others if they contracted
Covid-19 had a statistically significant relationship
with a reduction in income. These findings are in line
with other results from other studies which indicate
that people feeling that they would be discriminated
against due to various diseases has a strong
relationship with reduction in income. This is
because such a feeling reduces people’s production
and it stops many from going to work or attending to
their businesses, hence causing a reduction in
income, [21], [38].
Knowledge of the best ways of controlling Covid-
19 had a statistically significant relationship with a
reduction in income. People who knew the ways of
preventing Covid-19 were more likely to survive and
maintain their businesses, hence leading to a steady
income. While those who had no knowledge of the
ways of preventing Covid-19 were more likely to be
infected by the virus and die. Others who survive had
to close their businesses and take care of themselves
or their loved ones. This condition slowed down their
productivity and thereby reduced their incomes.
These findings are in line with other studies which
showed that people who had knowledge of
preventing Covid-19 had an upper hand compared to
those who did not have such knowledge, [39].
However, after controlling the variables, two
variables had a strong effect on the reduction in
income, namely education with a P value of 0.042 OR
2.124 and medical insurance ownership, with a P
value of 0.012 OR 0.357.
Uganda was among the first countries in sub-
Saharan Africa to enact specific laws on Covid-19 as
early as March 17th, 2020. Presidential speeches were
an effective medium for delivering Covid-19-related
public health measures (non-pharmaceutical
interventions) to the public that relied on sound
scientific evidence such as recommendations from
the World Health Organization and Centers for
Disease Prevention. However, these pronouncements
were not law in Uganda. Thus, there was a need to
enact public health laws to enforce. Article 23 (1) (d)
of the 1995 Constitution of Uganda provides for the
withdrawal of personal liberties for the purpose of
preventing the spread of an infectious or contagious
disease. Hypothetically, if the Public Health Act (Cap
281) did not exist, the 1995 Constitution would be
sufficient. The last time Uganda applied Sect. 27 of
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DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
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the Public Health Act, namely, the Public Health
Rules (Plague Control), Statutory Instrument 281–27
was in the 1980s. Recently, Uganda has successfully
contained several highly contagious disease
outbreaks like cholera, yellow fever, and ebola virus
disease without necessarily enacting special laws.
The case of Covid-19 was unique due to the high-
level political commitment to Presidential speeches
legalized by enacting Rules, [40]. Uganda has a
policy to control Covid-19, namely “These Rules
may be cited as the Public Health (Control of Covid-
19) Rules, 2020”, [41].
6. Conclusion
In this study, researchers showed a significant
association between income and several variables in
Uganda, which are the loss of jobs, closure of
businesses, and knowledge of why the government
put up lockdown. It was shown that two variables had
a strong effect on the reduction in income and these
were education with a P value of 0.042 OR 2.124 and
medical insurance ownership with a P value of 0.012
OR 0.357. Increasing income is associated with
better health. However, it is evidenced that 76 percent
of people did not have health insurance. Furthermore,
households with medical insurance had their bills
covered during the Covid-19 outbreak, while families
without health insurance spent a lot of money on
medical bills. This forced the high court of Uganda to
order the government to regulate Covid-19 treatment
costs. In addition to that, in this research, it is
evidenced that 65 percent of respondents had high
education levels while knowing the best ways of
controlling Covid-19 had a statistically significant
relationship with a reduction in income.
Acknowledgement:
The authors would like to thank Universitas
Indonesia and Universitas Muhammadiyah Muara
Bungo.
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Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
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Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
Phlilimon: Conceived the research, provided original
idea of the study.
Fitriani: Provided materials and data for the research,
wrote the conclusion.
Sunardi: Reviewed the paper.
Karlinda: Analyzed and interpreted the data.
Erza: Selected research data.
Yulda: Designed the methods.
Nurcihikita: Wrote the results.
Yanti: Wrote the introduction.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
This research is personally funded by the authors.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
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Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare
that are relevant to the content of this article.
EARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS
DOI: 10.37394/232024.2024.4.6
Yessy Fitriani, Semukasa Philimon,
Kartika Setyaningsih Sunardi, Karlinda,
Desi Metriana Erza, Apri Yulda,
Tiara Nurcihikita, Vivi Yosefri Yanti
E-ISSN: 2944-9006
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