Climatic-Geomorphological Investigation of the World's Wettest Areas

around Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, Meghalaya (India)

KULDEEP PARETA1*, UPASANA PARETA2

1Water Resource Department, DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt Ltd., New Delhi. INDIA

2Department of Computer Applications, Omaksh Consulting Pvt Ltd, Greater Noida, UP. INDIA

*Corresponding author: kpareta13@gmail.com, kupa@dhigroup.com

Abstract: This research paper comprehensively examines the climate and geomorphological features of

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, aiming to understand the factors and environmental implications of their extreme

precipitation. The study investigates climatic patterns, identifies geomorphological characteristics, and explores

the factors influencing the occurrence of heavy rainfall in these areas, and displays unique rainfall patterns with

high precipitation levels and notable spatio-temporal variation influenced by topographic interactions. Trend

analysis reveals stable rainfall conditions over the past 122 years. The shift of the world's wettest place from

Cherrapunji to Mawsynram in recent decades have been attributed to various factors such as geographical

location, geomorphology-local topography, LULC-human influence, rain shadow effect, and orographic lifting

effects. Cherrapunji recorded maximum rainfall of 24.55 thousand mm, while Mawsynram received 26

thousand mm of rainfall in the last century. The analysis of long-term rainfall data indicates distinct dry and

wet seasons, with recent trends (2000-2020) suggesting a decline in rainfall for both locations. Furthermore,

extreme value analysis techniques are employed to estimate maximum rainfall for different return periods,

offering insights into extreme rainfall events. The return period of one day's highest rainfall of 1340.82 mm is

about 100 years. The findings contribute to our understanding of climate change impacts, support sustainable

development practices, and inform strategies for water resource management and erosion mitigation in similar

geographic contexts. This research enhances our knowledge of these unique regions and their significance

within the broader context of global climate systems.

Key-words: Rainfall, climate change, geology, geomorphology, Cherrapunji, Mawsynram.

Received: July 13, 2022. Revised: August 12, 2023. Accepted: September 23, 2023. Published: October 3, 2023.

1 Introduction

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, located in Meghalaya,

India, are globally recognized as the wettest regions

on Earth, experiencing exceptionally high annual

rainfall [1]. These areas have attracted considerable

scientific interest and have become subjects of

research for their unique climate-geomorphological

characteristics [2]. The aim of this study is to

comprehensively investigate the climate and

geomorphological features of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram, with a primary focus on understanding

the factors contributing to their extreme

precipitation and assessing the environmental

implications. The research entails analysing climatic

patterns, including rainfall distribution, seasonality,

and variability in the region. Additionally, a detailed

examination of the geomorphological features, such

as landscape morphology and geology, has been

conducted. Special attention has been given to

identifying the factors influencing extreme

precipitation, such as monsoon dynamics,

orographic lifting, local topography, and

atmospheric moisture sources. The study also

involved field observations and measurements of

water circulation parameters and geomorphic

processes in selected sites within these wettest areas

[3]. Despite similarities in their location within the

monsoonal circulation zone and proximity to

uplifting mountains or horsts separated by active

tectonic lines from subsiding forelands, Cherrapunji

and Mawsynram differ in terms of substratum

lithology, tectonics, and human impact reflected in

land use. These variations provide an opportunity to

explore the influence of these factors on the

observed climate-geomorphological characteristics.

Northeast India, home to the Meghalaya plateau,

is a distinct region characterized by high rainfall and

complex interactions with its topography. The area

experiences significant spatio-temporal variation in

rainfall, making it challenging to detect trends in

extreme rain events [4]. However, trend analysis

indicates a stable rainfall pattern in northeast India

over the past 150 years at regional, sub-division, and

station levels [5]. The interaction between large-

scale circulation and local topography is

instrumental in determining the spatial distribution

of rainfall over the Meghalaya plateau [1, 5] which

serves as the first barrier for the southwest monsoon

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winds from the Bay of Bengal to the Himalayas.

The annual rainfall distribution is controlled by the

southern escarpment of the plateau, ranging from

6,000 mm in the southern foothills to 11,000-12,000

mm in Cherrapunji (1313.7 m), and Mawsynram

(1401.5 m). Rainfall gradually decreases with

distance from the southern edge of the plateau,

reaching 2,200 mm in Shillong (1520.3 m) and

1,600 mm in Guwahati (55.5 m) in the Brahmaputra

valley. The majority of the annual rainfall, about

80%, occurs between June and September. Despite

covering only 2% of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and

Meghna basins, they account for about 20-25 % of

the rainfall input between March and June [6]. The

Meghalaya plateau contributes significantly to

rainfall input between March and June, playing a

vital role in the flood processes observed in

Bangladesh [7].

Previous studies conducted on the Meghalaya

plateau have primarily focused on the exceptional

rainfall recorded at Cherrapunji, which holds the

world record for high precipitation over a period of

150 years [1, 3]. Notably, between August 1860 and

July 1861, Cherrapunji received a staggering 26,461

mm of rain [8]. The consensus among researchers is

that orography, particularly the steep southern side

of the plateau, plays a crucial role in the occurrence

of such immense rainfall. However, other factors

contributing to the enhanced precipitation have also

been identified. These include the presence of a

monsoon trough in the foothills of the Himalayas,

which facilitates the lifting of southerly flow over

the plateau's steep slopes [7]. Additionally, the

region benefits from additional moisture extraction

over the Bangladesh wetlands as maritime moisture

flows into the area from the Bay of Bengal. The

presence of a synoptic-scale low-pressure anomaly

over Meghalaya further enhances the rainfall [9].

Recent research on Cherrapunji's stable isotopes

confirms that the main source of monsoon air in

Meghalaya is the Bay of Bengal, with a smaller

influence from the western Arabian Sea [10]. The

northern Bay of Bengal, in particular, emerges as a

significant moisture source for the Meghalaya Hills.

Numerous studies have investigated the factors

responsible for the exceptionally high rainfall in

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram. The steep slopes of

the region cause the ascent of saturated southwest

winds, resulting in dynamic cooling and significant

condensation [11-14]. Proximity to the transition

zone between dry easterlies and moisture-laden

southerlies and south-westerlies contributes to

enhanced moisture availability and convergence of

air masses [1, 15-17]. Morning uplift of moisture-

laden air trapped within the valley leads to

convective processes and rainfall [4, 18-19]. Factors

like westerly circulations, atmospheric

perturbations, and air mass mixing ratios also

influence heavy precipitation [20-22]. Studies

indicate varying trends in extreme rainfall events,

with an increase in short spells of heavy rain and a

decrease in moderate rain days in Northeast India

[4, 23-24]. However, there are contrasting findings

regarding extreme events with more than 150 mm

rainfall per day [4].

2 About the Study Area

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are globally

recognized for their extraordinary rainfall and

exhibit distinctive climatic and geomorphological

features. Cherrapunji, located at latitude 25° 17'

27.55" N and longitude 91° 43' 59.01" E, holds the

title of the world's wettest spot with an average

annual rainfall of 11,430 mm, based on 122 years of

data from 1901 to 2022. During the peak of the

monsoon season, Cherrapunji experiences

continuous rainfall for up to two weeks. Cherrapunji

holds multiple Guinness World Records and in

1861, it recorded an astounding 26,000 mm of rain

[25]. Mawsynram, located at latitude 25° 17' 2.44"

N and longitude 91° 34' 27.75" E, is positioned at

the southern edge of the East Khasi Hills,

overlooking the plains of Bangladesh, and is

recognized as the wettest place on Earth. Based on

48 years of data from 1975 to 2022, Mawsynram

has an average annual rainfall of 11,871 mm.

Remarkably, between June and August alone, an

average of 3,000 mm of rain is reported.

Das [15] conducted a study on Cherrapunji's

orographic features and their influence on heavy

rainfall. The location of Cherrapunji on the southern

slope of the Khasi hills, with an average slope ratio

of 1:110 towards the southwest to southeast sector,

and an elevation of 1313.7 m above sea level,

contributes significantly to its rainfall [26].

Mawsynram, situated approximately 16 km west of

Cherrapunji and at a higher elevation of 1401.5 m,

exhibits similar orographic characteristics [26-27]

(Figure 1). Additionally, Mawsynram's positioning

on the edge of a narrow valley, which opens to the

south and undergoes a change in direction, creates

favourable conditions for convergence of maritime

air during the monsoon, resulting in intense vertical

currents and heavy rainfall on the surrounding hills

[26]. These combined factors contribute to

Mawsynram receives abundant rainfall. A list of the

world's rainiest places, along with their average

annual rainfall data is given in Table 1 [28].

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Table 1. Rainiest Places in the World

Position

Rainiest Places

Country

Average Annual Rainfall (mm)

Sources

Mawsynram,

Meghalaya

India

11,871

India Meteorological

Department (IMD)

Cherrapunji,

Meghalaya

India

11,430

India Meteorological

Department (IMD)

Tutunendo, Chocó

Department

Colombia

11,270

NOAA National Centers for

Environmental Information

Mount Waialeale,

Kauai, Hawaii

USA

10,272

National Weather Service,

Honolulu

Debundscha

Cameroon

10,299

NASA Earth Observatory

Cropp River

New Zealand

7,470

MetService New Zealand

Big Bog, Maui,

Hawaii

USA

6,957

Figure 1. Location Map of the Study Area

3 Methodology

3.1 Data Collection

The initial phase of this research involves the

collection of relevant data from multiple sources.

Meteorological data, including rainfall records,

temperature measurements, and wind data, have

been obtained from reputable sources such as the

National Data Centre of the Indian Meteorological

Department (IMD) in Pune, the Meteorological

Centre in Shillong, and the Meghalaya Planning

Department in Shillong. To understand the

landscape features and landforms in the study area,

valuable geomorphological data and geological

reports have been sourced. Furthermore,

topographic maps, SRTM DEM data, and satellite

imageries have been acquired to gain a

comprehensive understanding of the area and

facilitate updates to the geology and geomorphology

of the study area. The specific data used for this

research, along with their respective sources, are

detailed in Table 2.

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Table 2. Data Type and their Sources

S. No.

Data Type

Period

Sources

Topographical Maps

2005

Toposheet No.: 78/G, J, K, N, O; and 83/B, C

Scale: 1:250,000

Source: Survey of India (SoI)

Link: https://onlinemaps.surveyofindia.gov.in/

Landsat Satellite Imageries

2000

2023

Landsat-5 TM Satellite Imagery

Landsat-9 OLI-2 Satellite Imagery

Spatial Resolution: 30 m

Path/Row: 136/042, 136/043, 137/042, 137/043,

138/042

Source: USGS Earth Explorer

Link: http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov

Elevation information

2014

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM Data

Spatial Resolution: 30 m

Source: USGS Earth Explorer

Link: http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov

Geology and Geomorphology

2009

Source: Geological Survey of India (GSI)

Scale: 1:50,000

Link: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in

Measured Daily Precipitation Data

Station: Cherrapunji

1978-

2023

Meterological Observatory, Govt. of India, Cherrapunji

Link: https://cherrapunjee.com/daily-weather-data/

Measured Monthly Precipitation

Data

Station: Cherrapunji

1901-

2022

Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune; and

IMD, Meteorological Centre Shillong

Rainfall and surface temperature data collected from

meterological Observatory, Govt. of India,

Cherrapunji.

Link: https://cherrapunjee.com/daily-weather-data/

Measured Yearly Precipitation

Data

Station: Mawsynram

1975-

2022

Meghalaya Planning Department, Shillong

Link: https://megplanning.gov.in/handbook/

Measured Precipitation Data

Station: State Average

1901-

2022

Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, Govt.

of Meghalaya

Link:

https://megagriculture.gov.in/PUBLIC/agri_scenario_R

ainFallStats.aspx

Grided Precipitation Data from

various satellite imageries

Station: Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram

Note: DHI Water Data Portal

(available at:

https://www.flooddroughtmonitor.c

om/DataApp/) has integrated all

grided precipitation data in the

portal. We have obtained these

datasets from DHI Water Data

Portal.

1981-

2023

CHIRPS: Climate Hazards Group InfraRed

Precipitation with Station data

Spatial Resolution: 0.05°×0.05° Degree

Link: https://data.chc.ucsb.edu/products/CHIRPS-2.0/

2000-

2023

GPM: Global Precipitation Measurement

Spatial Resolution: 0.1°×0.1° Degree

Link: https://gpm.nasa.gov/missions/GPM

2003-

2023

PERSIAN: Precipitation Estimation from Remotely

Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks

Spatial Resolution: 0.25°×0.25° Degree

Link: https://chrsdata.eng.uci.edu/

It is important to acknowledge that the available

measured precipitation data for Mawsynram were

collected from various annual reports of the

Meghalaya Planning Department. Unlike

Cherrapunji, Mawsynram does not have a dedicated

meteorological office or trained meteorological

observers stationed in the area. Instead, the rainfall

readings are taken by a peon from the Meghalaya

Public Works Department who is posted there.

However, the nature of his methods for measuring

rainfall remains uncertain, especially when he is

absent or not feeling well, as there is no provision

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for a substitute or clear guidelines on his approach.

Despite these limitations, the peon consistently

sends monthly rainfall data to the meteorological

office at Cherrapunji. Due to concerns about the

data's authenticity, meteorologists consider

comparing rainfall between these two places to be

meaningless. Ideally, Mawsynram should have its

own meteorological observatory with qualified staff,

similar to the one at Cherrapunji. Until then, experts

argue against making such comparisons without

reliable and standardized data sources.

3.2 Basic Mechanism Affecting Precipitation

Clouds by Hills and Mountains

The size and shape of a hill or mountain have a

profound effect on the ultimate distribution of

precipitation on the ground [29]. The distribution of

precipitation over and near a terrain feature is

determined by a combination of microphysics, fluid

flow dynamics, and thermodynamics of moist air

[30]. When airflow encounters terrain, its response

varies depending on several factors. In buoyantly

unstable flow, convection and precipitation can be

triggered as the oncoming air rises to pass over the

obstacle [29, 31-32]. In a stable flow approaching a

barrier, the flow's response depends on the strength

of the cross-barrier airflow, the thermodynamic

stability of the oncoming flow, and the height of the

terrain barrier [33]. These factors can be combined

into a nondimensional ratio U/Nh, where U

represents the cross-barrier flow strength, N denotes

the Brunt-Väisälä frequency, and h represents the

maximum terrain height [34-37]. This ratio serves as

a measure of the importance of nonlinear effects in

the flow.

Another significant factor influencing

precipitation distribution over mountains is the

exponential decrease in the saturation vapor

pressure of the atmosphere with temperature and

height [38]. Precipitation generated through upward

air motion and microphysical growth processes on

the windward side of a barrier is typically more

pronounced at lower levels [29, 39-41].

Consequently, higher mountains often exhibit

greater precipitation on their lower slopes [42-43].

This interaction between humidity and other

microphysical and dynamical factors can result in

drier conditions in the upper regions of taller

mountains [44-46]. Our study investigates the

fundamental mechanisms underlying the influence

of hills and mountains on precipitation cloud

formation and dynamics in the Meghalaya Plateau

of Northeast India. With its notable topographic

features, including prominent hills and mountains,

the plateau provides an ideal setting to examine the

interplay between topography and atmospheric

processes [29, 47-48]. Through the analysis of

meteorological data and numerical simulations, this

research aims to elucidate the key mechanisms

shaping precipitation patterns in this region [49-52].

The Meghalaya Plateau, situated in Northeast

India, is renowned for its remarkable rainfall and

rugged topography (Figure 2). The presence of hills

and mountains significantly influences the local

climate and precipitation patterns [53]. With

extensive hill ranges and elevated peaks, the

plateau's proximity to the Bay of Bengal allows for

the inflow of moisture-laden air masses [7, 10, 54].

The intricate interplay between these air masses and

the complex terrain creates favourable conditions

for cloud formation and rainfall [55]. Various

mechanisms come into play when hills and

mountains affect cloud formation [56]. Orographic

lifting occurs as air encounters elevated terrain,

leading to upward motion, cooling, and enhanced

condensation, resulting in cloud development [57-

58]. This phenomenon is particularly notable on

windward slopes, where moist air is forced to rise,

leading to orographic precipitation [59]. The

interaction between the atmosphere and topography

also impacts cloud dynamics. Uplifted air masses

over hills and mountains can trigger the formation

of convective clouds associated with intense rainfall

[29, 60]. The complex terrain further influences

local circulations, such as valley and mountain

breezes, which play a role in shaping cloud behavior

and precipitation patterns [61-62].

Initial results indicate that the presence of hills

and mountains on the Meghalaya Plateau has a

notable impact on the characteristics of precipitation

clouds. Orographic lifting and intensified

convection over elevated terrain play a significant

role in generating the localized heavy rainfall

observed in this area. The simulations demonstrate

the intricate interaction between topography,

atmospheric dynamics, and cloud microphysics.

3.3 Why Mawsynram getting more rainfall

than Cherrapunji.

Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are renowned for their

extraordinary rainfall, with Mawsynram actually

receiving slightly higher average annual

precipitation than Cherrapunji. The reasons for

Mawsynram highest rainfall compared to

Cherrapunji can be attributed to several factors,

including differences in geographical location, local

topography, human impact, the rain shadow effect,

and orographic lifting effects [3, 7].

Geographical location: Both Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram are situated on the southern slopes of

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the Khasi Hills, with elevations ranging from 1313

m to 1401 m (Figure 1). Cherrapunji is positioned at

the northern edge of a deep valley that runs from

south to north, while Mawsynram is located atop a

hill within the same valley.

Figure 2. Conceptual Model of the Airflow and Microphysics of Orographic Precipitation Mechanisms in

Shillong Plateau

Local topography: The local topography of the

region influences the distribution of rainfall.

Mawsynram, characterized by a more undulating

terrain and surrounded by hills (Figure 1), is situated

at a slightly higher elevation and in closer proximity

to the Bay of Bengal compared to Cherrapunji.

These hills act as barriers, causing the moist air to

rise and undergo condensation, resulting in higher

rainfall amounts in Mawsynram.

Human influence: Analysis of Landsat satellite

imageries for the years 2000 and 2023 has revealed

changes in land use and land cover in the

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram areas. The study

shows a reduction in vegetation cover over the past

25 years, indicating the influence of human

activities on the changing rainfall patterns.

Specifically, the practice of Jhum cultivation or

shifting cultivation, as well as deforestation, has

contributed to the decrease in forest and tree-

covered areas. The land use-land cover maps,

illustrated in Figure 3, demonstrate an increase in

crop land and built-up areas, particularly in the

vicinity of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram. The study

estimates an annual decrease of 105.3 km2 in

vegetation cover, while crop land and built-up areas

have increased by 184.5 km2 and 0.34 km2 per year,

respectively. These human-induced changes in land

use are impacting the rainfall patterns in the

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram regions.

Rain Shadow Effect: Cherrapunji is positioned

on the side of the Khasi Hills that faces the

prevailing moisture-laden winds, resulting in direct

exposure to their impact. Conversely, Mawsynram

is situated on the opposite side of the hills,

experiencing the rain shadow effect. This

phenomenon causes the descending air to warm,

leading to reduced rainfall in Cherrapunji compared

to Mawsynram [63].

Orographic lifting effects: It is worth noting

that while Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are both

known for their exceptionally high rainfall, the

difference in precipitation between the two is

relatively small. The specific ranking of these

locations as the wettest can vary annually, with

Cherrapunji occasionally receiving higher rainfall

than Mawsynram in certain years due to weather

pattern variability [64]. However, on average,

Mawsynram receives slightly more rainfall than

Cherrapunji.

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are both impacted

by the Bay-of-Bengal arm of the Indian Summer

Monsoon (Figure 2). As the monsoon clouds

traverse the plains of Bangladesh, they encounter

the formidable Khasi hills, which abruptly rise to

heights of around 1300 meters above sea level

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within a short distance. The rugged topography of

these hills, characterized by deep valleys, acts as a

funnel, channelling the low-flying moisture-laden

clouds (ranging from 155 to 320 meters) towards

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram. However, one notable

distinction between Cherrapunji and Mawsynram is

that Cherrapunji is situated at the convergence of

multiple gorges, while Mawsynram lacks this

feature. Mawsynram is positioned in the central part

of a parallel range, with Laitkynsew Hill to its

south, forming a valley that runs from east to west.

The southern opening of this valley directly faces

Mawsynram, where the monsoon winds, blowing

from the south, collide with Laitkynsew Hill before

being channelled through the valley and ascending

the slopes of Mawsynram. When the clouds are

carried by the southward winds over the hills, they

are channelled through the valley that lies between

Laitkynsew Hill and Mawsynram Hill. This valley

includes the Umwai, Wahlong, Mawsmai, and

Kutmadan valleys. As a result, the clouds strike

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in a perpendicular

direction, causing the low-flying clouds to be

pushed up the steep slopes. It is not surprising that

the heaviest rainfall occurs when the winds directly

hit the Khasi Hills. Factors such as climate change,

human influence near Cherrapunji, and the unique

topography of Mawsynram have led to Mawsynram

receiving more rainfall than Cherrapunji in recent

years. Remarkably, despite the heavy downpours,

these areas do not experience flooding, as the deluge

drains off to the Sylhet floodplains in Bangladesh.

Figure 3. Satellite Imageries and LULC Maps for Year 2000 and 2023

3.4 Cause of Heavy Precipitation

Northeast India, characterized by its hilly terrain and

its connection to the Indo-Gangetic Plains, is highly

susceptible to regional and global climate variations.

The rainy seasons in this region are the pre-

monsoon and monsoon periods. Over the past few

decades, long-term changes in rainfall patterns have

resulted in a notable shift in the world's wettest

place from Cherrapunji to Mawsynram, which are

separated by a distance of 16 km. Mawsynram now

holds the title with an average annual rainfall of

11,871 mm, while Cherrapunji continues to

experience heavy rainfall, averaging 11,430 mm per

year.

The Meghalaya Plateau, with its steep and

parallel mountains (Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills),

experiences heavy precipitation due to the

interaction of rain-bearing summer air currents and

the unique topography of the region. As the

monsoonal air currents move north from the hot and

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humid floodplains of Bangladesh, they encounter

the funnel-shaped relief of the Meghalaya hills,

characterized by deep valleys and gorges. These

mountains act as barriers, impeding the northward

movement of the clouds. Instead, the clouds are

funneled through the narrow gorges and forced to

ascend the steep slopes, resulting in significant

rainfall in the area.

Through research, it has been identified that

various factors contribute to the occurrence of heavy

precipitation in the Meghalaya Plateau. These

factors include the dynamic cooling of saturated

southwest winds as they are forced to rise vertically

along the steep slopes, the proximity to the line of

discontinuity between different air masses, such as

dry easterlies, north easterlies, moist southerlies,

and southwesterlies, the early morning lifting of

moist air trapped in the valleys overnight, and the

influence of westerly circulations, perturbations,

meso-scale factors, and variations in the mixing

ratio. Additionally, the orography of the region

plays a significant role [11, 13-14, 17, 19, 24].

4 Geomorphological Features

A comprehensive understanding of the geo-morpho-

logical characteristics of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram is crucial in studying the correlation

between the landscape and the remarkable rainfall

patterns observed in these areas. Various aspects of

the geomorphology have been thoroughly analyzed

to gain insights into this relationship.

4.1. Geology

The geological characteristics of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram in Meghalaya, India, are marked by a

combination of sedimentary rocks, limestone

formations, and distinct landforms (Table 3).

Table 3. Geological Succession of the Study Area

Age

Group

Formation

Lithology

Pleistocene

Alluvium

Older Alluvium

Mix Sedimentary Deposits

Mid-Pliocene

Dupitila

Unclassified

Feldspathic Sandstone and Conglomerate

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Middle-Miocene

Garo

Chengapara

Coarse Sandstone, Siltstone

Lower-Miocene

Baghmara

Coarse, Feldpathic Sandstone

Oligocene

Simsang

Siltstone and Fine Sandstone

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Eocene-Oligocene

Barail

Jenum

Sandstone, Shale

Upper Paleocene

Jaintia

Lakadong Limestone

Crystalline Limestone

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Mid-Cretaceous

Khasi

Basal Conglomerate

Conglomerate and Sandstone Grit

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Mid-Cretaceou

Sung

Unclassified (alkaline ultramafic

carbonate complex)

Pyroxene-Serpentinite

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Lower Cretaceous

Sylhet trap

Unclassified

Basalt, Alkali Basalt, Rhyolite, and acid Tuff

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Carboniferous-

Permian

Lower

Gondawana

Talchir

Basalt Tillite with Sandstone Bands

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Neo-Proterozoic to

Early Paleozoic

Granite

Plutons

Mylliem Granite

Porphyritic Coarse Grain Granite

Mid-Proterozoic

Khasi Green

stone

Unclassified (basic-ultrabasic

intrusives)

Epidiorite, Dolerite Amphibolite

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Early Proterozoic

Shillong

Lower Shillong

Mainly Schists with Calc-Silicate Rocks

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Unconformity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Archean-

Proterozoic

Basement Gneissic Complex

Biotite Gneiss, Granite Gneiss, Mica Schist

Source: Geological Survey of India, 2009 [68].

These geological attributes contribute significantly

to the region's varied landscapes and have a

significant impact on its hydrological systems and

geomorphology. The geology of both Cherrapunji

and Mawsynram is predominantly composed of

sedimentary rocks belonging to the Shillong Group,

which is a part of the Meghalaya Plateau [65-66].

The Shillong Group encompasses various rock

formations, such as sandstones, shales, and

conglomerates, which were deposited during the

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Paleogene and Neogene periods [65]. Notably, the

presence of extensive limestone formations is a

prominent feature in the region, giving rise to vast

cave systems and underground drainage networks

[66]. The limestone formations found in Cherrapunji

and Mawsynram are attributed to the Sylhet

Limestone Formation, which is believed to have

originated during the Eocene period through the

accumulation of marine sediments. The distinctive

karst topography observed in the area is a

consequence of the limestone's dissolution caused

by rainwater percolation through fractures and joints

in the rock [66]. This process has given rise to an

intricate network of underground caves, sinkholes,

and disappearing streams. Several notable caves in

the region, including the Mawsmai Cave, Krem

Phyllut, and Krem Liat Prah, exemplify the

fascinating underground features shaped by this

geological phenomenon [67].

The geological composition of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram is characterized by porous limestone

formations, which play a significant role in the

hydrological processes of the region [66]. The

presence of limestone facilitates high rates of

groundwater infiltration and promotes rapid surface

runoff, resulting in the formation of numerous

streams and waterfalls. The abundant rainfall in the

area further intensifies the erosive forces of water,

contributing to the creation of deep valleys, steep

slopes, and gorges. These unique geological features

have captured the attention of geologists and

researchers studying karst systems and their

hydrological implications. To visualize the

geological makeup of the study area, a

comprehensive geological map has been prepared

using various sources, including published

geological maps from the Geological Survey of

India (GSI), Landsat-9 OLI-2 satellite imagery,

SRTM DEM data, and Survey of India (SoI)

topographical maps. The resulting geological map

provides valuable insights into the geological

characteristics of the region (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Geological Map of Meghalaya State, and Area around Cherrapunji and Mawsynram

4.2. Geomorphological Mapping

Geomorphology is a scientific discipline focused on

studying the origins, forms, and development

processes of landforms [69-71]. Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram, located on the Meghalaya Plateau,

exhibit steep slopes and undulating terrain that are

characteristic of the region. The combination of

heavy rainfall and the erodible nature of the

sedimentary rocks has shaped various landforms in

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the area [72]. These landforms include ridges,

escarpments, terraces, and interfluves, which

contribute to the complex relief pattern of the

landscape [73]. The topography of the landscape

showcases intricate relief patterns, which arise from

the differential erosion processes and the varying

resistance of the rock formations [74].

Geomorphological mapping serves as a valuable

tool for land management, assessing

geomorphological risks, and providing baseline data

for other environmental research fields such as

landscape ecology, forestry, and soil science [75-

77].

The development of a geomorphological map has

greatly benefited from the utilization of satellite

remote sensing data. Through the visual

interpretation of Landsat-9 OLI-2 satellite imagery

with a spatial resolution of 30 meters, as well as the

incorporation of SRTM DEM data at the same

resolution, published geological maps from the

Geological Survey of India (GSI) at a scale of

1:50,000, and topographical maps from the Survey

of India (SoI) at a scale of 1:250,000, a

comprehensive geomorphological map of the study

area has been created. This map, presented in Figure

5, is accompanied by additional references such as

structural geological maps, slope maps, and

landform maps. Field observations were also

conducted, although limited in scope, to further

enhance the accuracy of the map.

Figure 5. Geomorphological Map of Meghalaya State, and Area around Cherrapunji and Mawsynram

5 Climate Analysis

The meteorological data collected has undergone

thorough analysis to investigate the climatic patterns

in Cherrapunji and Mawsynram. Statistical

techniques have been employed to examine the

distribution, seasonality, and variability of rainfall

over the study period. However, comparing the

rainfall records between Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram has presented challenges due to the

difference in data lengths available. Cherrapunji has

a longer record spanning approximately 122 years,

while Mawsynram's data covers a shorter period of

around 50 years. To ensure meaningful conclusions,

careful consideration has been given to this disparity

in data length when conducting comparative

analyses.

5.1. Climatic Patterns in Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, situated in the

northeastern state of Meghalaya, India, are globally

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renowned for their extraordinary rainfall patterns

and distinctive climatic characteristics. These

regions exhibit some of the highest average annual

precipitation levels in the world, making them

remarkable for their climatic extremes. We observed

a noticeable change in measurements before and

after 1960, prompting us to analyze the trends

before (1901-1960) and after (1960-2022) this

pivotal year. To comprehensively understand the

climatic variations, we conducted statistical analyses

for the four distinct seasons in northeast India [27]:

winter (January to February), pre-monsoon (March

to May), summer monsoon (June to September), and

post-monsoon (October to December), as well as for

the annual average measurements. Employing

statistical techniques, we carefully analyzed and

interpreted the collected data, utilizing time-series

analysis to identify long-term trends or cyclic

patterns in the rainfall data.

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram exhibit a distinctive

climatic pattern characterized by a monsoon climate

influenced by the Indian Ocean and the Himalayan

Mountain range [18, 78]. These areas receive

copious amounts of rainfall during the monsoon

season, which typically spans from June to

September [27]. The southwest monsoon winds

carry moisture-laden air, leading to abundant

rainfall and creating a lush and vibrant landscape

[26]. An interesting climatic phenomenon observed

in the region is the occurrence of "pre-monsoon"

showers in March and April, preceding the main

monsoon season [9]. These early showers

significantly contribute to the overall high annual

precipitation in the area. Additionally, the region

experiences a relatively drier period referred to as

the "winter dry season" from December to February

[79].

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram are renowned for

their intense and localized rainfall, often

accompanied by heavy downpours, leading to

substantial daily precipitation amounts [5]. The

unique topography, characterized by hilly terrain

and proximity to the Bay of Bengal, plays a crucial

role in enhancing rainfall through orographic uplift

of moist air [60]. These climatic conditions have

shaped the landscape, contributing to the presence

of numerous waterfalls, caves, and dense forests

[80]. Recent studies have focused on analysing the

climatic patterns and trends in Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram, examining the variability of rainfall,

identifying long-term trends, and assessing the

potential impact of climate change on precipitation

patterns [64, 81-84]. The distinct monsoon climate

of these regions, characterized by heavy and intense

rainfall, has significant implications for local

ecosystems, water resources, and the livelihoods of

the communities residing in these areas [5].

The annual rainfall data for Cherrapunji,

Mawsynram, and the average rainfall for the state of

Meghalaya is depicted in Figure 6, using a color-

coded representation to highlight the disparities in

rainfall between the two locations. The color pink

indicates instances when Mawsynram has received

lower rainfall compared to Cherrapunji, while the

color green represents periods when Mawsynram

has received higher rainfall. Notably, there has been

a consistent and significant excess of rainfall in

Mawsynram compared to Cherrapunji since 1977,

which aligns with a similar pattern observed during

the period from 1948 to 1957. These findings raise

important questions and emphasize the need for

further investigation to better understand the factors

contributing to the divergent rainfall patterns

between these two locations.

Figure 6. Annual Variation of Rainfall at Cherrapunji, Mawsynram and Meghalaya State

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The divergent rainfall patterns observed in

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram stem from a complex

interplay of multiple factors, which have been

extensively discussed in Section 5.2. These factors

encompass local topography, atmospheric

circulation patterns, and regional climate dynamics.

Investigating and understanding these underlying

causes will provide valuable insights into the

mechanisms driving the contrasting rainfall patterns

between the two locations. Additionally, our

analysis has identified two notable peaks in single-

year rainfall records for both Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram. Cherrapunji recorded a maximum

rainfall of 24.55 thousand mm, while Mawsynram

experienced a peak of 26.00 thousand mm. This

extreme rainfall events demand attention due to

their potential impacts on local ecosystems, water

resources, and human settlements [85].

Over the years, the average winter precipitation

in the region has been recorded at 73.89 mm. Winter

precipitation tends to be lower compared to pre-

monsoon and summer monsoon precipitation. The

average pre-monsoon precipitation is 2187.02 mm,

with variations ranging between 1500 to 4000 mm.

Pre-monsoon precipitation stands out as the highest

among the seasons, indicating a substantial amount

of rainfall occurring before the onset of the

monsoon season. In contrast, the average summer

monsoon precipitation is 8761.35 mm, with a range

of 6-to-10 thousand mm (Figure 7). The summer

monsoon season exhibits the highest precipitation

levels, signifying the dominance of the monsoon

period characterized by heavy rainfall. Lastly, the

average post-monsoon precipitation is recorded at

504.07 mm, typically lower than both pre-monsoon

and summer monsoon precipitation.

According to Oldham [86], the heavy rainfall in

Cherrapunji is primarily concentrated during

nighttime hours. Das [15] conducted an analysis of

hourly rainfall data spanning four years and found

that a significant portion of the rainfall occurred

early in the morning, specifically between 01:00 to

07:00 IST. This observation was further supported

by Starkel [87], who reported a high frequency of

intense hourly rainfall during the nighttime period,

as observed by an automatic weather station.

Ohsawa [88] utilized Geostationary Meteorological

Satellite (GMS) data on equivalent black body

temperature (TBB) and also highlighted a nocturnal

maximum of rainfall in the region.

Figure 7. Temporal Evolution of Seasonal Rainfall at Cherrapunji (1901-2022)

5.2. Trend Analysis of Annual Rainfall

The analysis of the percentage departure from mean

rainfall spanning from 1901 to 2022 reveals distinct

climatic patterns in both Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram. Cherrapunji experienced a dry season

from 1901 to 1950, followed by a wet period

between 1960 and 2000. However, from 2000 to

2020, Cherrapunji entered another dry season.

Similarly, Mawsynram exhibited a dry phase from

1950 to 1970, transitioning into a wet period from

1970 to 2000. However, both locations experienced

a decline in rainfall from 2000 to 2020, resulting in

a prolonged dry spell (Figure 8). These observed

variations in rainfall patterns have significant

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implications for the local climate and various

aspects of the environment. The identified dry and

wet seasons signify changes in precipitation

distribution over time, affecting water availability,

ecosystems, and human activities in the region. The

dry seasons observed in Cherrapunji from 1901 to

1950 and from 2000 to 2020 indicate periods of

reduced rainfall, potentially impacting water

resources and agricultural practices. Similarly, the

dry period from 1950 to 1970 in Mawsynram, along

with the subsequent decline in rainfall, pose

challenges for water availability and ecosystem

dynamics.

Figure 8. Decadal Variation of Rainfall between 1901 and 2022 at Cherrapunji and Mawsynram

The observed decline in rainfall from 2000 to

2020 in both Cherrapunji and Mawsynram raises

concerns about the long-term sustainability of these

regions [64]. Factors such as climate change and

other environmental influences may contribute to

this downward trend, highlighting the need for

further investigation. It is important to acknowledge

that this analysis provides valuable insights into

historical rainfall patterns and trends [81].

Continued monitoring and research are crucial to

assess the ongoing changes in precipitation patterns

and understand their potential implications for the

future [89]. By deepening our understanding of

these climatic shifts, policymakers and stakeholders

can develop strategies to mitigate the impacts of

changing rainfall patterns and promote the resilience

of local communities and ecosystems [90-91].

An analysis of decadal rainfall trends was conducted

for Cherrapunji and Mawsynram using average

rainfall data spanning two distinct time intervals:

1901-2022 and 1960-2022. The findings revealed

contrasting trends between these periods. When

considering the long-term trend from 1901 to 2022,

both locations exhibited an increasing trend in

rainfall over time. This suggests that over several

decades, there has been a consistent rise in the

amount of rainfall received in Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram. However, a different pattern emerges

when focusing on the more recent period from 1960

to 2022, where a declining trend in rainfall becomes

evident (Figure 9). This indicates that in recent

years, there has been a notable decrease in the

amount of rainfall observed at both locations. These

contrasting trends highlight the dynamic nature of

rainfall patterns and the importance of analysing

data over different time intervals to gain a

comprehensive understanding of long-term climatic

changes.

Figure 9. Trend Analysis of Annual Rainfall from 1901 to 2022, and 1960 to 2022 at Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram

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The findings of this study hold significant

implications for comprehending the evolving

precipitation patterns in Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram. The observed long-term increasing

trend in rainfall provides evidence of historical

augmented precipitation levels, indicating a pattern

of enhanced rainfall in these regions. However, the

documented decreasing trend in rainfall during more

recent decades raises concerns about a potential

shift in precipitation patterns. The analysis of

decadal rainfall trends offers valuable insights into

the temporal variability of precipitation, aiding in

our understanding of how rainfall patterns evolve

over time. Ongoing monitoring and analysis of

rainfall trends are crucial to identify and address the

potential impacts of changing precipitation patterns

on local ecosystems and communities.

5.3. Return Period of Maximum One-Day

Rainfall

The estimation of maximum rainfall for various

return periods was conducted using daily rainfall

data from 1978 to 2023, utilizing the EVA (Extreme

Value Analysis) tool of MIKE Zero software [92].

The maximum recorded rainfall values for a one-

day duration were subjected to a frequency analysis

using the GUM technique proposed by Gumbel

[93]. To determine the return periods (T) of the

extreme annual values, the formula T = (N + 1) / m

was employed, where N represents the total number

of years of record and m is the rank number of the

annual series arranged in descending order. The

frequency bar plots, extreme value analysis results,

probability plots for rainfall, and quantiles estimates

for different return periods can be found in Table 4.

Table 4. Quantiles estimate for different return

periods at Cherrapunji.

Return

Period (Y)

GEV /

MOM

GUM /

LMOM

LP3 /

LMOM

537.121

545.68

540.225

749.435

758.555

752.763

898.575

899.497

896.738

1048.407

1034.691

1037.034

1097.372

1077.577

1082.042

1252.711

1209.687

1222.455

100

1413.856

1340.822

1364.864

*Generalized Extreme Value (GEV), Method of

Moments (MOM), Gumbel (GUM) Distribution

Model, L-Method of Moments (LMOM), Log-

Pearson Type 3 (LP3).

The data points representing the observed one-

day rainfall values and the corresponding computed

straight line are depicted in Figure 10. The highest

recorded one-day rainfall during the period from

1978 to 2023 was 1340.82 mm, and based on the

analysis, it is estimated to have a return period of

approximately 100 years. This finding indicates that

such an extreme rainfall event, as observed, is

relatively rare and expected to occur approximately

once in a century.

Frequency analysis has been applied to predict

design rainfall for Cherrapunji by utilizing observed

rainfall data. This technique involves the utilization

of statistical information, such as mean values,

standard deviations, skewness, and recurrence

intervals, calculated from the observed rainfall data.

These statistical parameters are used to construct

frequency distributions, which provide information

on the likelihood of various rainfall intensities based

on recurrence intervals or exceedance probabilities.

The process of frequency analysis entails fitting a

probability model to the maximum recorded rainfall

data from a given observation period at a particular

station (Figure 11). The established model

parameters are then employed to estimate the

occurrence of extreme rainfall events with large

recurrence intervals.

6 Conclusion

The research paper focuses on comprehensively

studying the climate and geomorphological features

of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, aiming to

understand the factors behind their extreme

precipitation and its implications for the

environment. The study examines climatic patterns,

identifies geomorphological features, and

investigates factors influencing extreme rainfall,

providing valuable insights into these unique

regions. Northeast India, particularly the Meghalaya

plateau, exhibits unique characteristics with regards

to its rainfall patterns. The region experiences high

rainfall with large spatio-temporal variation due to

interactions with topography. Trend analysis

indicates stable rainfall conditions over the past 150

years, and the interaction between large-scale

circulation and local topography influences the

distribution of rainfall. Previous studies on rainfall

at Cherrapunji, Mawsynram and Meghalaya plateau

have highlighted orography as the primary cause of

their exceptionally high precipitation. Their unique

climatic and geomorphological characteristics make

them some of the rainiest places on Earth. The

exceptionally high rainfall in Mawsynram and

Cherrapunji is influenced by various factors

including geographical location, local topography,

human influence, rain shadow effect, and orographic

lifting effects. The shift of the world's wettest place

from Cherrapunji to Mawsynram in recent decades

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in northeast India have been affected by these

factors. The geology of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram, characterized by sedimentary rocks

and extensive limestone formations, contributes to

the diverse landscapes, karst topography, and

hydrological systems in the region. The

geomorphology of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram on

the Meghalaya Plateau is characterized by steep

slopes and undulating terrain, which have given rise

to a variety of landforms. The geological and

geomorphological maps of Meghalaya state have

been updated by using satellite remote sensing data,

DEM data with limited field check.

Figure 10. Extreme Value Analysis and Probability Plot for Daily Rainfall (mm) at Cherrapunji

Figure 11. Frequency Bar Plot for Daily Rainfall (mm) at Cherrapunji

Studies have been conducted to analyze rainfall

patterns, identify long-term trends, and understand

the impact of climate change on precipitation. The

rainfall disparities between Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram in Meghalaya, India, have been

visually represented, highlighting the consistent

excess rainfall in Mawsynram since 1977. Winter

precipitation is generally lower compared to pre-

monsoon and summer monsoon precipitation. Pre-

monsoon season experiences the highest rainfall,

followed by the dominant monsoon season with

heavy rainfall. There is a notable occurrence of

heavy rainfall during the night in Cherrapunji, as

observed in previous studies. The analysis of long-

term rainfall data for Cherrapunji and Mawsynram

reveals distinct dry and wet seasons over the years,

with recent trends indicating a decline in rainfall for

both locations. The analysis of long-term rainfall

trends in Cherrapunji and Mawsynram highlights

the contrasting patterns of increasing rainfall over

the entire period of study (1901-2022) and a more

recent decreasing trend (1960-2022). Through the

application of Extreme Value Analysis (EVA) using

the GUM technique, the maximum rainfall for

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different return periods has been estimated based on

daily rainfall data from 1978 to 2023. The frequency

bar plots, extreme value analysis, and probability

plots provide valuable insights into the probability

and quantiles estimates for various return periods,

enhancing our understanding of extreme rainfall

events in the region. Furthermore, the studies

contribute to our understanding of climate change

impacts, provide insights for sustainable

development practices, and inform strategies for

water resource management and erosion mitigation

in similar geographic contexts. Overall, the research

enhances our knowledge of these unique regions

and their significance within the broader context of

global climate systems.

There are also some future research options in

this study, such as (i) To investigate the impact of

climate change on precipitation in these regions,

using historical data and climate models to guide

adaptation and mitigation efforts; (ii) To develop

specific hydrological models for Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram, considering their specific geology, to

forecast river flow, groundwater recharge and flood

susceptibility; (iii) To study the causes and

processes of landslides and erosion in these areas

due to heavy rainfall. Emphasize early warning

systems for disaster prevention; and (iv) To analyze

the climate and geomorphology of Cherrapunji and

Mawsynram in comparison to other global rainfall

regions for similarities and differences.

Data availability:

The data used in this study is available upon request

from the corresponding author. Due to

confidentiality agreements and ethical

considerations, some restrictions may apply to the

sharing of certain data. However, reasonable

requests for data will be considered and

accommodated to the extent possible within the

constraints of the data usage policies and regulations

in India. Please contact the corresponding author for

further information regarding data availability.

Acknowledgement:

The authors would like to extend their heartfelt

appreciation to the esteemed Managing Director of

DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt Ltd, New

Delhi, for their exceptional guidance, unwavering

support, and invaluable contributions to this

research endeavor. Their profound expertise,

visionary leadership, and dedication to advancing

the fields of water and environment have been

instrumental in the success of this study. Their

unwavering commitment to excellence has served as

a constant source of inspiration throughout this

journey. The authors are sincerely grateful for the

MD's profound impact, vision, and unwavering

commitment to fostering innovative solutions for a

sustainable future.

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