Combining Germanium Quantum Dots with Porous Silicon:

An Innovative Method for X-ray Detection

AHMAD M. AL-DIABAT1,*, NATHEER A. ALGADRI2, TARIQ ALZOUBI3,

NASER M. AHMED4, ABDULSALAM ABUELSAMEN5, OSAMA ABU NOQTA6,

GHASEB N. MAKHADMEH5,7, AMAL MOHAMED AHMED ALI8, ALMUTERY AML9

1Department of Physics, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan,

Amman,

JORDAN

2Department of Physics,

Isra University, Amman,

JORDAN

3College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East,

Egaila, 54200,

KUWAIT

4School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia,

Penang,

MALAYSIA

5Medical Imaging and Radiography Department, Aqaba University of Technology, Aqaba 910122,

JORDAN

6MEU Research Unit, Middle East University,

Amman 11831,

JORDAN

7General Education Department, Skyline University College,

Sharjah, P. O. Box 1797,

UAE

8Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,

Alkharj 11942,

SAUDI ARABIA

9Department of Physics, Shaqra University,

SAUDI ARABIA

*Corresponding Author

Abstract: - This study investigates the controlled electrochemical synthesis of porous silicon and germanium

(Ge)-doped porous silicon using a 4:1 ratio of hydrofluoric acid (HF) to ethanol. Structural analysis performed

with FESEM-EDX confirmed the presence of Ge in the samples. Analysis of the I-V characteristics

demonstrated that increasing the bias voltage at the source led to a corresponding increase in the observed

current. Additionally, effective X-ray measurements facilitated the assessment of X-ray irradiation effects on

the sample detector. The experimental results indicated that the optimal conditions for the porous silicon (PS)

and Ge-doped porous silicon (Ge-PS) samples were (90V, 100mA, 1s) and (100V, 10mA, 0.5s), respectively.

Key-Words: - porous silicon, X-ray detector, Quantum dots, EGFET, Ge/PS, Radiation.

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ELECTRONICS

DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

128

Volume 15, 2024

1 Introduction

Radiation refers to the emission and transfer of

energy in the form of electromagnetic waves (EM

waves) or particles, such as electrons and neutrons,

traveling through space or various materials. It is

primarily categorized into two types: ionizing and

non-ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation possesses

sufficient energy to ionize atoms by ejecting

electrons from their orbitals, which occurs when

energy is transferred through waves or particles.

Examples of ionizing radiation include X-rays,

gamma rays, and neutrons, while non-ionizing

radiation, such as radio and microwave frequencies,

lacks the energy needed for ionization, [1], [2].

X-ray detectors operate by leveraging the

photoelectric conversion capabilities of

semiconductors to transform X-rays into electrical

signals. Directly ionizing radiation comprises highly

charged particles that quickly transfer energy

through interactions with orbital electrons. In

contrast, indirectly ionizing radiation, like X-rays or

gamma rays, interacts with atoms, resulting in

electron ejection and energy deposition within the

material, [3].

X-ray detectors are widely utilized in various

domains, including industrial inspection, scientific

research, non-destructive testing, and medical

imaging, [4], [5], [6]. Solid-state semiconductor

detectors are particularly favored for their

simplicity, compactness, durability, and versatility

in creating detector arrays for imaging applications.

They convert X-ray photons into electrical signals

rapidly, and key performance metrics—such as

efficiency, sensitivity, and peak-to-background

ratio—are crucial for minimizing patient X-ray

exposure and enhancing the detection of faint X-ray

signals, [7], [8] [9] [10]. These performance metrics

correlate with properties such as charge carrier

mobility, lifetime product, and the atomic number

(Z) of the semiconductor material. A range of

materials, primarily crystalline, such as silicon,

germanium, and cadmium zinc telluride, are utilized

in X-ray detector fabrication, benefiting from

advancements in semiconductor technology. With

ongoing technological progress, researchers are

increasingly investigating nanoparticles and

exploring diverse synthesis methods to produce

either crystalline or amorphous nanomaterials

tailored for specific applications. Common synthesis

techniques include chemical vapor deposition

(CVD), reduction of graphene oxide, and chemical

exfoliation, particularly for materials like graphene

and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), [11], [12].

Quantum dots, a specific type of nanoparticle

composed of a limited number of atoms, facilitate

electron transfer. Woggon has extensively studied

their optical properties, particularly their light

absorption capabilities. When excited by ultraviolet

(UV) light, a quantum dot semiconductor emits light

at a specific wavelength, producing a unique color,

[13]. The electronic, magnetic, and optical

characteristics of quantum dots can be significantly

influenced by variations in their shape and size,

especially when doped with other materials.

Porous silicon (PS), characterized by its silicon

composition with voids, was first discovered at Bell

Laboratories in the mid-1950s by Uhlir during

research on electrochemical machining techniques

for silicon wafers in microelectronics. Contrary to

expectations, the wafers did not dissolve uniformly,

resulting in the formation of voids in the <100>

orientation. Although initially overlooked, this

material regained interest in the 1980s due to its

high surface area, which proved beneficial for

spectroscopic applications, [14], [15].

Doping PS with Ge quantum dots was chosen to

potentially enhance its detection capabilities. The

additional electrons from Ge improve the material's

sensitivity to low-level irradiation, [16]. Research

on this specific doping method for irradiation

applications is limited, prompting I-V characteristic

measurements to be taken post-synthesis to assess

the impact of irradiation on the detector.

Two primary dosimeter types in the

semiconductor industry are silicon diodes and Metal

Oxide In the semiconductor industry, the two main

types of dosimeters are silicon diodes and Metal

Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors

(MOSFETs). However, the extended gate field

effect transistor (EGFET) offers advantages such as

a smaller size, which facilitates fabrication and

handling, making it suitable for various applications,

[17]. It also provides low-sensitivity detection with

high accuracy in irradiation measurements.

Continued exploration of material properties may

result in enhanced efficiency for radiation detectors.

Each type of dosimeter presents distinct advantages

and limitations in radiation detection.

Semiconductor detectors generally exhibit a more

pronounced response compared to ionization

chamber detectors. Therefore, this study primarily

focuses on semiconductor-based detectors, [16].

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ELECTRONICS

DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

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Volume 15, 2024

This research aims to investigate the integration

of germanium quantum dots with porous silicon and

evaluate their effectiveness as X-ray detectors. The

study will concentrate on fabrication methods, the

material properties of the resulting composite, and

the performance of the detection device. Ultimately,

the goal is to demonstrate how combining these two

materials can advance X-ray detection technology,

potentially leading to significant improvements in

this field.

2 Methodology

Electrochemical etching is used to prepare PS

because it is inexpensive and produces a sufficient

quantity. The preparation procedure is separated

into four stages: cutting, cleaning, electrochemical,

and washing. Initially, a silicon wafer is sliced into a

square form of 2 x 2 cm using an ATV RV-129

diamond scriber machine. After that, the standard

Radio Corporation of America (RCA) cleaned the

sliced samples. Werner Kern created the RCA

technique at the RCA Laboratory in the late 1960s.

It includes the following chemical processes:

organic and particle cleaning (RCA-1), oxide

stripping, and ionic cleaning (RCA-2). After

cleaning the surface impurities from the wafer, its

weight is carefully measured and recorded. The

wafer is then secured at the base of a Teflon cell,

ensuring contact with a metal plate. To initiate the

electrochemical process, a mixed electrolyte

solution containing hydrofluoric acid (HF) and

ethanol (C₂H₅OH, 99.99%) in a 4:1 volume ratio is

introduced into the Teflon cell. For Ge deposition

on PS, 0.05g of Ge powder is combined with a 4:1

combination of HF and ethanol. After Ge is

dissolved in the solution, the electrochemical

process begins with 20 mA current and a 20-minute

etching duration. After 20 minutes, the solution is

discarded as trash, and the PS is repeatedly cleaned

with ethanol. The weight of the sample following

the etching process is measured and documented.

A Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope

(FESEM) is used to investigate the morphology,

metallographic features, and topology of a material.

It is a sophisticated approach for investigating

materials' local structure (2-5nm), particle and grain

form or size, and nanoscale element analysis, [18].

Thus, this approach is appropriate for viewing

structures as small as 1nm on the material's surface.

This experiment measures, records, analyzes, and

discusses the properties of the I-V curve.

This study contrasts the presence and absence of

light on the sample detector, using a tungsten lamp

as a light source. After acquiring and analyzing the

data from the I-V curves, the setup was modified

somewhat, with the sample converted into a single

electrode and put under an X-ray source to detect

photons. As part of this investigation, the sample

detector is converted into an EGFET (Extended

Gate Field Effect Transistor). This experiment is

designed to investigate radiation changes that occur

on samples. Figure 1 depicts the experimental setup

for an X-ray detector.

Fig. 1: Experimental setup for X-ray detector

3 Results And Discussion

3.1 Morphological Observations

Following the synthesis of all samples,

FESEM/EDX was performed. The average pore size

is determined. The average pore size for PS is

around 420.88 nm. There are 'branches' on the

surface of PS. Unlike PS, Ge-PS has more apparent

pores. Chemical composition may be determined

using FESEM and EDX, which are closely linked.

Ge deposition was found in the samples. Because of

the low mass of deposits utilized in the

electrochemical process (0.05g of deposits in each

sample), it is difficult to detect deposits on the

sample's surface. All samples include impurities,

including some polluted with boron (B), fluoride

(F), and copper (Cu) particles.

Fig. 2: FESEM/EDX result of (a) PS (b) Ge-PS

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ELECTRONICS

DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

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Volume 15, 2024

Figure 2 shows that porous silicon (PS) displays

prominent peaks for silicon (Si) and oxygen (O),

indicating a potential oxide layer formation on the

sample surface. Furthermore, germanium (Ge) is

detected in the Ge-PS sample with a concentration

of 0.18% by weight (0.07% atomic.

3.2 I-V Characteristic Result

The I-V curve was recorded after the placement of

interdigitated finger electrodes on the sample, as

shown in Figure 3. This study primarily examined

how light, specifically within the wavelength range

of 380 to 700 nm, affects the sample detector’s

performance. A voltage was applied from the drain

to the source, ranging from -5V to 5V, with the gate

bias voltage set at either 0V or 0.3V.

The findings reveal that the gate bias voltage

significantly influences detector performance across

all samples. When the gate bias was raised to 0.3V,

the current measured also increased. For instance,

with a drain voltage of -5V, the current in PS at a

0V bias without light was approximately 2.0×10⁻⁵

A. However, with a gate bias of 0.3V, the current

rose substantially to around 7.0×10⁻⁴ A.

This behavior can be attributed to the elevated

gate bias voltage, which repels electrons from the

gate surface, thereby allowing increased current

flow through the drain. Thus, an increase in gate

bias voltage correlates with a higher current flow.

This observation is consistent with prior studies,

which found that higher gate bias voltages result in

increased current at a fixed drain voltage, [19].

Bias V = 0V

Bias V = 0.3V

Fig. 3: I-V curve of PS, and Ge-PS at bias V = 0V

& 0.3V

In this part of the study, it was observed that the

current increases under the same applied voltage in

the presence of light, with the exception of Ge-PS at

a bias of 0.3V. The noticeable differences between

the curves under light conditions indicate an

enhanced recombination of electron-hole pairs.

Studies show that when light photons interact with

semiconductor materials, electrons in the valence

band can absorb photon energy and transition to the

conduction band, creating additional holes in the

valence band. Figure 4 provides a schematic

representation of the impact of light photons on the

energy band gap.

Fig. 4: Effects of light photons on energy band gap.

Here's a completed Table 1 summarizing the

maximum and minimum current measurements for

applied voltages of -5V and 5V at bias voltages of

0V and 0.3V.

Table 1. Maximum and minimum current measured

for applied voltage (-5V and 5V) at bias 0V and 0.3

Sam

ple

Bias 0V

Bias 0.3V

V=-5 V

V=5 V

V= - 5 V

V=5 V

Light

PS/I

(A)

4.90

×10-

1.60

×10-

5.27

×10-

4.99

×10-7

1.35

×10-3

6.23

×10-4

1.05

×10-3

1.04

×10-3

Ge-

PS/I

(A)

7.34

×10-

8.73

×10-

5.13

×10-

4.85

×10-7

1.73

×10-9

4.74

×10-9

9.68

×10-4

8.70

×10-4

3.3 X-ray Detector Results

A detector sample underwent exposure to X-rays,

followed by the collection of data for analysis. The

study will evaluate and compare several parameters

related to the X-ray exposure for each detector

sample, with results presented in current versus time

and voltage versus time graphs. This investigation

seeks to examine and contrast the effects of varying

irradiation conditions on the detector samples. The

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DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

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attributes of each detector will be assessed

according to the parameters listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Parameters used for irradiated samples

Short name

Description

Without X-ray

Samples are not irradiated with X-ray/ normal

condition.

(90, 100, 1)

Samples were irradiated at 90 V, 100mA, and

1s.

(100, 100, 1)

Samples were irradiated at 100 V, 100mA, and

1s.

(90, 100, 0.5)

Samples were irradiated at 90 V, 100mA, and

0.5s.

In a separate investigation known as the five-

pulse study, a sample detector was subjected to five

continuous irradiations under fixed X-ray

parameters. This study aimed to collect pulse data

displayed in current vs. time and voltage vs. time

graphs, with the applied voltage maintained at 3 V

for a duration of 5 seconds across the sample

detectors.

As observed in the I-V characteristic study,

increasing the gate bias voltage correlates with

higher current detection, particularly notable at a

bias of 0.5 V. In the current vs. time graphs, the

irradiated sample took longer to achieve the same

current levels compared to the non-irradiated

sample. For example, in the current vs. time graph

for porous silicon (PS) at a 0.3 V bias, the non-

irradiated sample reached a current of 0.0002 A in

2.87 seconds, whereas the irradiated counterpart

took 4.26 seconds (Figure 5 and Figure 6).

For non-irradiated samples, the applied voltage

at 2 seconds was approximately 1 V for PS, after

which the current began to rise from 0 A. In

contrast, irradiated samples exhibited a slight delay

in voltage response accompanied by a pulse, visible

in both the voltage vs. time and current vs. time

graphs, with the voltage graph displaying

fluctuating pulses and the current graph showing

smaller pulses.

Under the irradiation conditions of (90, 100, 1)

and (100, 100, 1), a pulse was recorded at 0.45

seconds with a corresponding current of 12.7 μA.

For the (90, 100, 0.5) condition, the pulse occurred

at 2.82 seconds, yielding a measured current of 16.4

μA. In the voltage vs. time graph, the pulses for (90,

100, 1) and (100, 100, 1) were measured at 0.572 V

and 0.465 V, respectively, after 2 seconds, while a

pulse of 0.444 V was observed before 2 seconds for

the (90, 100, 0.5) condition. Both current and

voltage pulses were notably higher under a 0.5 V

bias (Table 3).

Table 3. Current and voltage pulses measured for PS

at bias 0.3V and 0.5V

Sample

Pulses measured

Parameters

Current vs

time (A)

Voltage vs

time (V)

PS (bias

0.3V)

(90, 100, 1)

12.7

0.572

(100, 100,

12.7

0.465

(90, 100,

0.5)

16.4

0.444

PS (bias

0.5V)

(90, 100, 1)

15.9

0.177, 0.775,

0.657

(100, 100,

26.6

0.956, 0.583

(90, 100,

0.5)

26.6

0.7, 0.337

Graph of Current vs

Time

Graph of Voltage vs

Time

Fig. 5: Graph for PS with different parameters of X-

ray irradiation

Graph of Current vs

Time

Graph of Voltage vs

Time

Fig. 6: Graph for Ge-PS with different X-ray

parameters

The exploration of different parameters did not

reveal significant variations in the samples'

responses. Theoretically, X-ray irradiation is

expected to cause a rapid surge in both voltage and

current due to the extra energy it provides for

electrons to move from the valence band to the

conduction band. However, contrary to these

expectations, the results showed a delay in the

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DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

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Volume 15, 2024

increases of voltage and current after irradiation,

indicating that the data might be influenced by

reverse bias voltage effects.

Additionally, the limited range of parameters

used likely contributed to the minimal variation in

pulse characteristics, restricting the observable

differences. Consequently, this study primarily

illustrates that the synthesized sample detector is

indeed responsive to irradiation.

4 Conclusion

This study presents an innovative use of

nanotechnology in radiation detection, highlighting

the cost-effective production of extended gate field-

effect transistors (EGFETs). The fabrication of PS

and Ge/PS extended gates employed an

electrochemical method utilizing a 4:1 HF/ethanol

mixture along with 0.05 g of doping powder. The

characterization through FESEM/EDX analysis

confirmed the presence of the doping material,

yielding distinct imaging results.

In contrast to other studies, the I-V

characteristics were obtained using this unique

approach. The investigation also included the

impact of X-ray irradiation on the EGFET sample

detector, with measurements and results thoroughly

documented. Notably, the Ge-PS sample detector

demonstrated a more significant difference in

current and voltage pulses than the PS detector.

Based on the findings, optimal parameters for each

detector type are suggested: (90 V, 100 mA, 1 s) for

PS and (100 V, 10 mA, 0.5 s) for Ge-PS.

Acknowledgement:

The authors acknowledge the financial support from

Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan under grant

number 2022-2021/08/16.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted

Technologies in the Writing Process

During the preparation of this work the authors used

AI servises in order to improve grammar and

spelling. After using this tool/service, the authors

reviewed and edited the content as needed and take

full responsibility for the content of the publication.

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Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

Conceptualization, Ahmad M. AL-Diabat and

Natheer A. Algadri.; methodology, Ahmad M. AL-

Diabat and Tariq AlZoubi and Naser M. Ahmed.;

software,

Abdulsalam Abuelsamen and Osama Abu noqta.;

validation, Ahmad M. AL-Diabat and and Ghaseb

N. Makhadmeh.; formal analysis, Amal Mohamed

Ahmed Ali and ALMUTERY AML.;

investigation, Ahmad M. AL-Diabat and Natheer A.

Algadri.; resources, Ahmad M. AL-Diabat and

Tariq AlZoubi and Naser M. Ahmed.; data curation,

Ahmad M. AL-Diabat and Tariq AlZoubi and

Naser M. Ahmed.; writing—original

draft preparation, A.M.A.A. and A.A; writing—

review and editing, N.M.A., K.H.I., N.A.A.,

A.M.A.-D.,

I.A.W. and K.H.I.; visualization, N.A.K.;

supervision, N.M.A. and N.A.K.; project

administration,

O.A.A., A.A. and K.H.I.; funding acquisition,

K.H.I. and O.A.A.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en

_US

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ELECTRONICS

DOI: 10.37394/232017.2024.15.15

Ahmad M. Al-Diabat, Natheer A. Algadri,

Tariq Alzoubi, Naser M. Ahmed, Abdulsalam Abuelsamen,

Osama Abu Noqta, Ghaseb N. Makhadmeh,

Amal Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Almutery Aml

E-ISSN: 2415-1513

134

Volume 15, 2024