Transformational Leadership Practices of Senior High School
Principals in Indonesian Context by Gender
SULPAKAR SULPAKAR
Educational Doctor Programme of Teacher Training and Education Faculty
Universitas Lampung, Bandar Lampung City
INDONESIA
RIDWAN RIDWAN
SMP Negeri 3 Way Pengubuan Central Lampung Regency
INDONESIA
SUDJARWO SUDJARWO
Educational Doctor Programme of Teacher Training and Education Faculty
Universitas Lampung Bandar Lampung City
INDONESIA
HASAN HARIRI
Educational Doctor Programme of Teacher Training and Education Faculty
Universitas Lampung Bandar Lampung City
INDONESIA
HERDIAN HERDIAN
Educational Doctor Programme of Teacher Training and Education Faculty
Universitas Lampung Bandar Lampung City
INDONESIA
Abstract: This article is a sequel to a study and several have been published. The purpose of this study is to answer the
questions 1) are there differences in the perceptions of principals' transformational leadership based on gender? 2) which is
more solid on the perception of principals' transformational leadership based on gender? This survey on transformation by
gender and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used as research tools via a five-point Likert scale. The sample
in this study amounted to 140 teachers in Pesawaran Regency, Lampung Province. The data is processed using SPSS
Version 22. The calculation results show 1) the significance of the calculation results with a statistical significance of 0.05
and independent samples test, the probability (sig) is 0.106 > 0.05, meaning that the male and female population variances
are the same/identical, and 2) Variance statistic for male is 23,709 smaller than female 38,361. The results of these
calculations mean that gender differences do not make difference in perceptions of transformational leadership practices
and women are not more solid than men in perceiving transformational leadership practices. Thus, women's participation
in contributing to development shows a significant increase both in quantity and quality, and women can act as a
counterweight. In the final word, men and women, complement each other to participate in development.
Key-Words: gender, Indonesian context, senior high school principals, transformational leadership
Received: August 21, 2021. Revised: May 13, 2022. Accepted: June 11, 2022. Published: July 3, 2022.
1. Introduction
Gender is an important variable in education
in all countries regardless of the system of
government, from capitalist to socialist, in both
developing and industrialized countries. Almost all
countries, in particular, have a general pattern that the
participation of men is higher than that of women.
Issues of gender and education become important,
especially when viewed in the context of the
constitutional guarantee of equality for women in all
areas of life: political, economic, cultural, social, and
domestic. The discussion of gender has penetrated
detail into the deepest niches in life including
leadership. Leadership that is considered friendly with
gender issues, one of which is transformational [1].
In today's collaboration era, a project, program or
institution involves many elements of human resources
including classic collaboration: women and men.
Talking about the roles of men and women must
involve gender diction. Gender research has developed
many theories to help understand the tasks,
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experiences, identities, and lives of women and men. A
long-standing problem is that gender appears to exert a
strong influence in society, alongside recognition of
the complex and diverse ways in which gender, and
gender interpretations, can operate. Contemporary
thought also tends to eschew essentialist or fixed views
of gender “difference” [2]. Instead, the researcher asks
what empirical findings mean about gender and gender
differences, how they relate to controversies about the
position of men and women in society, and how they
relate to projects of community life. There are,
therefore, several clear link points where such a theory
can help to explain the existing empirical findings on
gender and leadership [1].
Transformational leadership is a very effective
type of leadership. Transformational leadership
practices positively affect job satisfaction, motivation,
collaboration, the culture of innovation, sense of
purpose and mission, reduce feelings of stress, and
stimulate commitment and engagement with the
organization [3-5].
A successful project, program, or institution
generally synergizes with a leadership style. As noted
by Muller and Turner [6, 7], A manager's leadership
style has a direct relationship with success.
Implementing a leadership style, in particular,
leadership that has traits that drive success is very
important [8-10]. Leadership is often measured by
three main elements; time, cost, and quality [11-13].
The three main elements are known as results-based
leadership. These three main dimensions are directly
influenced by the type of leadership [14, 15].
Meanwhile, education in the Indonesian context is
measured by student outcomes in the form of scores.
Although the results in the form of scores are a by-
product of implementing effective leadership.
Leadership can bring a domino effect. Leadership can
open up new good opportunities called success. This
implies that leadership styles can vary depending on
the type of field and its followers. In the world of
education, the followers are teachers and staff, and
students.
The study of transformational leadership styles in
various fields continues to increase [16, 17]. Swid [18]
uses all types of leadership styles proposed by Bass
(1985a) to analyze police officers in two Middle
Eastern countries. The finding is that transformational
leadership results in greater effectiveness than
transactional leadership in terms of organizational
outcomes. Like Swid [18], many studies on
transformational leadership have excluded other
leadership styles [19, 20]. Still, the findings are
consistent, even when transformational leadership is
applied across countries. For example, Shim, Cho [21]
found that transformational leadership positively
affects group culture and development, using a survey
collected from Korean police officers. Furthermore,
Bass explains that transformational and transactional
leadership are not contradictory concepts, and some
leaders can have both leadership styles [22]. Is it true
that the claims about transformational leadership also
occur in the Indonesian context with an educational
background at the high school level?
This paper intends research to present findings
from areas where patriarchal customary social systems
and belief systems are considered the practice of male
hegemony over women [23]. This paper also refers to a
conceptually differentiated approach, which many
scholars call the gender effect [24, 25]. This research is
in line with decades of approaches to gender theory
and research and deals with the socio-political
dimensions of gender primarily by revealing and
questioning the social, historical, cultural, and
psychological processes by which people, their social
relationships, and their lives are biased. gender (or
not). Indeed, there have been many studies on gender,
but those that examine gender in transformational
leadership practices in education are still rare. There is
a gap in research information on gender originating
from areas that already involve more women's roles
[23]. In general, in Indonesia, the number of female
teachers is more than the number of male teachers. The
power of numbers if not managed properly will only
waste resources [26]. Indonesian women have a
significant effect on determining the future of the
nation and state because women have the right to
determine policy direction through participation in
general elections and regional elections. For this
purpose, this research was conducted. This study
intends to answer research questions, 1) are there
differences in the perceptions of principals'
transformational leadership based on gender? 2) which
is more solid on the perception of principals'
transformational leadership based on gender?
2. Literature Review
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Although there are many definitions and theories
of leadership, Burns [27] defined leadership as
encouraging followers to support goals that represent
the values and wants, needs, aspirations, and
expectations on the part of leaders and followers.
Burns [27] is widely supported by research such as the
influence of leaders on the emotions and behavior of
subordinates [28-36]. In particular, Bass [28],
transformational leadership is considered a theory
recognized by many leadership experts [37]. Bass [28]
found that transformational leadership has many
shortcomings in organizational leadership parameters
but makes a major contribution to manager-employee
relationships when used properly. Transformational
leadership has four components: idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation
[32].
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2.2 Gender perception
The higher the level of education, the fewer
women are involved and are included in higher echelon
positions. This trend does not only occur in countries
such as Indonesia [23] but also occurs in almost all of
the world, both developed, developing, and
underdeveloped countries. Worldwide, women
represent 53% of bachelor's and master's degrees. The
gap is widening at Doctoral (43% female vs 57% male)
and even more at the postgraduate level, where only
28% of research positions are occupied by women [6,
7]. This gender gap is more visible at the senior level,
with women's lower representation in leadership
positions and implications for decision-making and
policy. A report investigating gender equality in
research and innovation in Europe [38, 39], showed
that only 21% of class A, top-level researchers were
women and, surprisingly, not many. an increase from
the 20% observed in 2010. Likewise in Spain's
academic system, women's representation is nearly
identical to that of other EU representatives (40.8% vs.
41.0%), and women occupy 21.0% of senior positions
in Spain. vs 20.9% in the European Union [40].
Gender perceptions can influence women's
advancement to senior positions [8]. Women are
perceived as poorer scientific leaders [41, 42] and are
stereotyped as lacking the necessary innate talent in
some fields [11]. These and other gender stereotypes
may explain why women receive the same level of
research funding when they are judged on the quality
of their research but less funding when judged on
researcher excellence [14], are invited to conferences
less frequently [15, 43], are less likely to be selected
for scientific awards [44, 45], are underrepresented on
the editorial board [46], their work is less likely to be
cited, they have fewer opportunities to be invited to
participate in peer reviews [47], they have less chance
of being invited to participate in peer review [47, 48],
and they have more limited access to influential
networks [49].
Smith, Handley [50] reported that men did not
acknowledge any gender bias in the study. However,
when both men and women were asked to read an
abstract from a study that reported on a gender-biased
research report, the men tended to 'evaluate' this. Some
facts show men's reluctance to admit gender bias.
Gender differences are more pronounced among
academics working in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) [1, 51].
In addition, many female undergraduate discipline
choices depend on the potential for discrimination
anticipated in each field [52]. Lack of understanding of
these issues, particularly at the senior level, is likely to
result in less action being taken to address them.
Therefore, it is important to understand how gender
bias is perceived by researchers in their workplace, and
most importantly, whether gender, seniority, the field
of research, and type of institution influence these
perceptions. While reports are published regularly to
evaluate the current situation of gender in science and
its evolution over the years [7, 43], less is known about
researchers' perceptions of gender equality.
A large number of studies have emerged on gender
and leadership, particularly on the influence of leader
gender on their perception of leadership style, but one
variable that is often overlooked is the gender role
identity of leaders [54]. Gender role identity defines
the stereotype of an individual's self-perception as
masculine or feminine and includes qualities that are
considered ideal for each gender in society [55]. In this
model, gender identity content is framed within the
framework of agency and alliance. Men are expected to
display agency characteristics, such as assertiveness,
striving for achievement, and competitiveness. In
contrast, women are expected to display communal
characteristics, including nurturing, benevolence, and
personal concern for the individual interests of others
[56-58]. Some individuals do not conform to
traditional differences: even though they are female,
they display stereotypical masculine or agency traits—
or, conversely, even though they are male, they display
stereotypical communal or feminine characteristics
[25, 26, 59].
According to role congruence theory [60, 61], the
mismatch—or role mismatch—between women's
leaders and perceived leadership demands is the basis
for biased evaluations of women as leaders. Despite
progress, showing increasing acceptance of
androgynous leadership, researchers emphasize that the
stereotype of “successful leaders” is still defined in
masculine terms [62, 63]— highlighted by the maxim
Think male – Leader who thinks” [64-66].
Role congruence theory states that a double bond
to women's leadership can arise due to: (a) unfavorable
evaluations of women's leadership potential; and (b) a
less favorable evaluation of women's actual leadership
behavior [67, 68]. While social scientists often
emphasize the disadvantages women face when
carrying out leadership functions [67-69], recent
studies suggest a paradigm shift. A growing body of
literature argues that a specific form of leadership,
namely transformational leadership, is becoming more
“feminine” [67, 70-72]. Such leadership involves the
transformation of followers' values and goals by
increasing their level of awareness [73]. By
communicating the vision and providing symbols and
emotional appeal to raise awareness of their followers,
transformational leaders encourage them to imagine
new ways of thinking and treat them differently but
fairly on a one-to-one basis [59, 74-77].
Transformational leadership appears at the same
time as changes in organizations characterized by a
looser and more flexible organizational structure
toward hierarchies, leading to more collaboration and
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empowerment for employees [71, 78]. For example,
Eagly and Carli [78] argue that changes in leadership
contexts cause people to rethink leadership traits,
suggesting that the qualities required to display
transformational behavior are characterized by
collaboration, interpersonal interaction, and power-
sharing, stereotyped characteristics. as reflecting
feminine or communal attributes [71, 78, 79].
Research on gender and leadership has neglected
the influence of the relationship between leader gender
role identity and leader gender on perceptions of
leadership style, with little research looking at how
leader gender and leader gender role identity affect
followers' perceptions of leadership. In particular, the
authors attempt to extend the theory of role congruence
by linking to the leadership prototype theory of Lord
and Maher [80] to offer a more comprehensive
framework for explaining how the interaction between
leader gender identity and leader gender affects
perceptions of transformational behavior [81].
The leadership prototype theory Lord, Foti [82]
show that followers hold mental representations of
what constitutes the prototype of the ideal leader. As a
result, researchers argue that when leaders do not fit
this prototype, subordinates form favorable evaluations
of their leadership [83]. Thus, the core question is to
understand whether the mismatch between the gender
of the leader and their perception of their gender
identity affects their perception of transformational
leadership behavior. The authors focus on followers'
perceptions of leadership because their attribution to
transformational leadership is key to understanding
biases and stereotypes, which can influence the
leadership process. Since research on gender and
leadership shows that transformational leadership is
more suitable for female leaders [78], the authors argue
that such leadership behavior is a prototype of the ideal
leader. Based on the theory of role congruence [61],
the authors argue that when there is a mismatch
between the gender identity of the leader and the
gender of the leader, perceptions of transformational
leadership among followers can be affected, by both
male and female leaders.
2.3 Gender roles of leaders and
transformational leadership
The literature review provides strong support for
the relationship between communal orientation and
transformational leadership [59]. Transformational
leaders inspire followers to go beyond their self-
interest for the sake of the team [27]. Based on gender
role theory [61, 84], the authors expect leaders who
score higher on communal orientation to display more
transformational behaviors, as they tend to highlight
the importance of cooperation and interdependence
(considered feminine qualities) among group members
to achieve team goals.
Park [85] investigated the relationship between a
leader's gender identity and two leadership styles,
which he described as "task-oriented" and
"relationship-oriented". The findings show a
significant positive relationship between communal
traits and "relationship-oriented" leadership styles, and
between agency traits and "task-oriented" leadership.
Another study investigated the relationship between
gender role characteristics and transformational
leadership, using a sample of management students
[86]. The results show a significant positive
relationship between communal characteristics and
transformational leadership, while a significant
negative relationship between agent characteristics and
transformational leadership is found. In a similar vein,
[87] examines the impact of gender roles on
transformational leadership. They concluded that
communal attributes such as benevolence and caring
were positively related to followers' perceptions of
transformational leadership. In contrast, agent
attributes such as being assertive, dominant, and
striving for power were negatively related to followers'
perceptions of transformational behavior; such
attributes do not match the collaboration, emotional
appeal, and collective sense exhibited by
transformational leaders. Finally, through research
conducted in Israeli banks, Kark, Waismel-Manor [59]
show that regardless of the gender of the leader, their
communal attributes are rated as more transformational
by their followers.
In particular, transformational leaders inspire
followers to go beyond their personal goals to
serve collective interests. Leaders who score
higher on communal factors tend to be more
considerate and kinder to their followers and
highlight the importance of collective goals,
which is in line with the characteristics of
transformational leaders [59, 87]. In contrast,
leaders who score higher on agency factors tend
to be more dominant and goal-oriented and strive
to control followers, which is inconsistent with
the characteristics of transformational leaders [59,
86, 87]. Thus, the authors suggest that leaders
who describe themselves as having communal
characteristics, whether male or female, will be
considered the most transformational by their
followers. On the other hand, leaders who
describe themselves as having agent
characteristics, whether male or female, will be
perceived as less transformational by their
followers.
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3. Method
The purpose of writing is to examine perceptions of
transformational leadership based on gender. Gender
identity defines the stereotype of the individual's self-
perception as masculine or feminine. Men are
generally perceived to display agency characteristics
(e.g., assertiveness and competitiveness, whereas
women are perceived to display communal
characteristics, such as benevolence and personal
concern for the individual interests of others).
Transformational leadership is a special form of
leadership that inspires followers to go beyond their
personal goals to serve collective interests. The
authors' results highlight the weighting of gender
stereotypes, which trumps followers' perceptions of the
leader's gender role identity, suggesting that male
leaders may also suffer the effects of backlash. Thus,
future research on gender and leadership should
introduce congruence between leader gender and
gender identity to investigate other effects on leaders,
such as leader-member exchange, authentic leadership,
and other outcomes of interest to organizations. This
survey on transformation by gender and the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used as
research tools via a five-point Likert scale. The sample
in this study amounted to 140 teachers in Pesawaran
Regency, Lampung Province. The data were processed
using SPSS Version 22.
4. Result
Table 1 Correlations items
Correlations
Ite
m1
Ite
m2
Ite
m4
Ite
m5
Ite
m6
Ite
m7
Ite
m8
Ite
m9
Tot
1_9
Ite
m1
Pearson
Correlatio
n
1
,758
**
,48
9**
,43
8**
,51
7**
,52
6**
,29
3**
,30
3**
,72
6**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m2
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,758
**
1
,50
3**
,47
1**
,51
1**
,55
0**
,29
0**
,32
4**
,74
5**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
1
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m3
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,623
**
,690
**
,57
8**
,57
5**
,69
5**
,62
8**
,37
1**
,42
3**
,81
3**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m4
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,489
**
,503
**
1
,67
3**
,61
2**
,59
6**
,37
7**
,41
1**
,77
2**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m5
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,438
**
,471
**
,67
3**
1
,70
9**
,60
5**
,27
3**
,49
6**
,76
3**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
1
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m6
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,517
**
,511
**
,61
2**
,70
9**
1
,67
7**
,33
1**
,42
6**
,79
7**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m7
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,526
**
,550
**
,62
8**
,59
6**
,60
5**
,67
7**
1
,35
7**
,50
8**
,79
6**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m8
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,293
**
,290
**
,37
1**
,37
7**
,27
3**
,33
1**
,35
7**
1
,53
8**
,62
0**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,001
,00
0
,00
0
,00
1
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
Ite
m9
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,303
**
,324
**
,42
3**
,41
1**
,49
6**
,42
6**
,50
8**
,53
8**
1
,68
3**
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
To
t1-
9
Pearson
Correlatio
n
,726
**
,745
**
,81
3**
,77
2**
,76
3**
,79
7**
,79
6**
,62
0**
,68
3**
1
Sig. (2-
tailed)
,000
,000
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
,00
0
N
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: 2021 Research Data
Table 3 shows the total data taken from 140
respondents and nothing data is missing.
Table 4 Reliability Statistics
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
,775
10
Source: 2021 Research Data
Referring to table 4, the Cronbach Alpha value is
0.775 which indicates that the 9th item statement has
high reliability.
Table 5 Group Statistics
Group Statistics
Codin
g
N
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
MTF
1
48
29,31
4,869
,703
FTF
92
28,54
6,194
,646
Source: 2021 Research Data
Table 5 above shows that the two groups had 48
and 92 respondents, respectively. The MTF (Male
Transformational) Leader score was higher than the
FTF (Female Transformational) group from an average
of 29.31 to 28.54.
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Table 6 Independent Samples Test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's
Test for
Equality
of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
t
df
Sig.
(2-
taile
d)
Mean
Differ
ence
Std.
Error
Diffe
rence
95%
Confidence
Interval of
the
Difference
Low
er
Upp
er
M
T
F
Equal
variance
s
assume
d
2,6
54
,10
6
,7
48
138
,456
,769
1,029
-
1,26
5
2,80
3
Equal
variance
s not
assume
d
,8
06
116
,84
1
,422
,769
,954
-
1,12
1
2,65
9
Source: 2021 Research Data
In table 6 independent samples test, it appears
that the probability (sig) is 0.106 > 0.05, meaning that
the male and female population variances are the
same/identical, meaning that gender differences do not
make any difference in perceptions of transformational
leadership practices.
Tabel 7 Male’s Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
N
Ra
nge
Mini
mum/
Maxi
mum
Su
m
Mea
n
Std.
Devia
tion
Varia
nce
Ske
wne
ss
Kurt
osis
Stat
isti
c
Stat
isti
c
Statist
ic
Sta
tist
ic
Stati
stic/
Std.
Erro
r
Statis
tic
Statis
tic
Stati
stic/
Std.
Erro
r
Stati
stic/
Std.
Error
MTF
48
21
15/36
14
07
29,3
1/,70
3
4,869
23,70
9
-
,883/
,343
,978/
,674
Valid
N
(listwi
se)
48
Source: 2021 Research Data
Table 7 shows that Male Transformational (MTF)
data consists of 48 participants with a variance are
23.709.
Tabel 8 Female's Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
N
Rang
e
Minim
um/
Maxim
um
Su
m
Mea
n
Std.
Devi
ation
Varia
nce
Skew
ness
Kurt
osis
Statis
tic
Statis
tic
Statisti
c
Stat
istic
Stati
stic/
Std.
Error
Stati
stic
Statist
ic
Statist
ic/
Std.
Error
Statis
tic/
Std.
Error
FTF
92
35
1/36
262
6
28,5
4/,64
6
6,19
4
38,36
1
-
1,259/
,251
3,13
5/,49
8
Valid
N
(listw
ise)
92
Source: 2021 Research Data
Table 8 shows that Female Transformational (FTF)
data consists of 92 participants with a variance are
38.361.
5. Discussion
RQ1 Is there a difference in the score of the
transformational leadership practice of the SMA
principals in Pesawaran based on gender?
To answer this question, the author refers to the
output table and compares the results of the calculation
the significance of the calculation results with a
statistical significance of 0.05. In table 6 independent
samples test, it appears that the probability (sig) is
0.106 > 0.05, meaning that the male and female
population variances are the same/identical, meaning
that gender differences do not make any difference in
perceptions of transformational leadership practices.
The identical perception of female and male teachers
can be explained as follows.
Gender identity defines stereotyped self-
perceptions of individuals as masculine or feminine.
Men are expected to display agency characteristics
(e.g., assertiveness and competitiveness), whereas
women are expected to display communal
characteristics (e.g., benevolence and personal concern
for the individual interests of others) [2].
The authors' findings suggest that female teachers,
who described themselves as having highly communal
attributes, rated their leaders as equally
transformational compared to male teachers. Talking
about the relationship between gender and perceived
leadership can't just be about women or about caring
but needs to include beliefs and statements that have
"true" values about men and human behavior.
Empirically, the discussion of gender is related to the
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parental role thesis and economic salience thesis [88]
and to the perception that men and children are
perceived as less concerned with surrounding
(sensitive) leadership while women are more
concerned. Such differentiation occurs when men
become more concerned with their ability to be
economic providers, while women show increased
concern because of their role as mothers/caregivers.
Another empirical fact is that both men and/or women
who work are more likely to care about economic
problems which lead to a lower level of concern for
problems that occur in the workspace and scope [88].
The findings of this study break gender bias as
occurs in other fields in the Indonesian context, as is
seen in many small business intervention and
development programs which usually tend to prioritize
male groups as business owners. As a result, women
entrepreneurs’ groups are more 'directed' toward
programs and interventions for sectors that are
assumed to be feminine. In other areas of life, such as
politics, economics, mass media, education, and
society, women are still far behind men. In the field of
productive work, more women are engaged in fields
that are considered 'fit' with women (feminine), such as
teaching, skills, secretarial, etc. Meanwhile, in
development programs, women still lack opportunities
and roles, both as policymakers, development agents
(development workers), and active participants.
Usually, women only receive development benefits
indirectly, namely from their husbands. Nevertheless,
the struggle for gender equality is aimed at
strengthening men and women, with the conditions
experienced in society.
RQ2 How solid is the perception of the
transformational leadership practices of high school
principals in Pesawaran based on gender?
Table 9 Variance Statistic between Male and
Female
MTF
FTF
Variance Statistic
23,709
38,361
The variance is a measure of how scattered the
data is. Low variance indicates the data are clustered
close to each other. A high variance indicates more
dispersed data. Table 9 shows that MTF is smaller than
FTF.
In probability theory and statistics, the variance or
variance of a random variable (or probability
distribution) is a measure of how far apart a set of
numbers is. A zero variance indicates that all values
are equal. The variance is always non-negative: a low
variance indicates that the data points are skewed very
close to the mean (expected value) and each other,
while a high variance indicates that the data points are
highly spread out around the mean and from one
another.
The same measurement is the square root of the
variance, also known as the standard deviation. The
standard deviation has the same dimensions and data;
therefore, it can be compared with the deviation from
the mean.
Variance is one of the descriptions of a probability
distribution. In particular, variance is one of the
moments of a distribution. In that context, it becomes
part of a systematic approach to distinguishing
between probability distributions. Although other
approaches have been developed, the moment-based
one is more advantageous in terms of mathematical
and computational convenience.
The variance is a parameter that describes, among
other things, the true probability distribution of a
population of observed numbers, or the theoretical
probability distribution of a population that is not fully
observed from which a sample number is drawn. In the
latter case, sample data from the distribution can be
used to form an estimate of the variance of the
underlying distribution; in the simplest case, this
estimate can be the sample variance.
From a psychological perspective, there are two
concepts of perception theory. That is a concept in
which the processing of inputs or stimuli received by
the senses, where there is a transformation of this low-
level information into higher-level information, for
example, is getting to know objects through their
shapes.
Direct perception, states that perception is formed
from obtaining information directly from the
environment. Complete Dictionary of Psychology
Perception (perception) is the process of knowing or
recognizing objects and object events with the help of
the senses. Awareness of organic processes and a
sensory group with the addition of meanings derived
from past experiences [89].
Referring to Table 9 which shows that the
Variance Statistics for males is 23,709 smaller
than females for 38,361, it can be concluded that
women are less solid than men in perceiving the
practice of transformational leadership of their
principals.
6. Conclusion
Unfavorable evaluations of women's leadership
potential and unfavorable evaluations of women's
leadership behavior often led to wrong views and
stereotypes. The author proposes two conclusions,
namely that gender differences do not make differences
in perceptions of transformational leadership practices
and men are more solid than women in perceiving
transformational leadership practices. Thus, women's
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participation in contributing to development shows a
significant increase both in quantity and quality, and
women can act as a counterweight. In the final word,
men and women, complement each other to participate
in development.
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