Ecoregion-Based Environment Policy to Resolve Water Resource
Conflicts at the Surakarta Ex-Residency
ARIEF BUDIONO1,*, IRAMADYA DYAH MARJANAH1, WARDAH YUSPIN1,
TRIAS HERNANDA2, ABSORI ABSORI1, MOH INDRA BANGSAWAN1,
TOMÁS MATEO RAMON3
1Department of Law,
Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta,
Ahmad Yani Street, Mendungan, Pabelan, Kartasura, Sukoharjo, Central Java,
INDONESIA
2Department of Law,
Universitas Muhammadiyah Kudus,
1 Ganesha Street, Purwosari, Kudus City District, Kudus Regency, Central Java,
INDONESIA
3Master of Legal
Universitat Internacional de Catalunya,
C. de la Immaculada, 22, Sarrià-Sant Gervasi, 08017,
SPAIN
*Corresponding Author
Abstract: - Introduction: This research studies the severe case of water resource conflicts at the Surakarta Ex-
Residency, Indonesia. The researchers were interested in studying this case as they wanted to provide a solution
to the water resource conflicts that happened at the Surakarta Ex-Residency through an eco-region-based
environmental policy principle. This research aims: (1) To describe the water resource conflicts at the Surakarta
ex-Residency, Central Java, Indonesia, (2) To identify the governmental policies on water resource
management that cause water resource conflicts, and (3) To formulate ecoregion-based water resource
management policy model to resolve water resource conflicts. Methods: This was socio-legal research with
doctrinal and non-doctrinal approaches. Results: The research results show that the water resource conflicts
between the society and the Municipal Waterworks that have control over the water resources happened due to
policies that allowed water management for commercial interests. Conflicts also happened between Regional
Governments, as a result of an inaccurate understanding of regional autonomy. This leads to the formulation of
water resource management policies that are merely based on regional egos. Discussion: The Regional
Government's policies on water resource management contribute to the emergence of water resource conflicts.
This is because such policies are directed to various orientation forms, namely economic orientation,
privatization, and the unsynchronized water resource management regulations between Regional Governments.
The water resource conflict resolution policy with the ecoregional approach is carried out through a mutual
agreement between Regional Governments, that will be followed up by each of those Regional Governments.
Conclusion: The legitimization is in the form of Regional Regulations that regulate the imposition of
responsibilities as well as the rights on the water resource management.
Key-Words: - Conflict Resolution, Ecoregional Approach, Policy, Water Resource, Surakarta, Environment.
Received: March 23, 2024. Revised: August 25, 2024. Accepted: September 16, 2024. Published: October 18, 2024.
1 Introduction
Indonesia is a country that is blessed with abundant
water resources. Unfortunately, it is not free from
water-related issues. This is because the country's
population factually increases in rate. These people
surely require an adequate water supply to live well.
However, the water supply and the water reserve
that is used to fulfill humans' needs keep on
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Arief Budiono, Iramadya Dyah Marjanah,
Wardah Yuspin, Trias Hernanda,
Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
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decreasing and depleting due to deteriorating
environmental conditions and due to exploitative
developmental activities.
The Indonesian population will keep on growing.
Its growth rate is around 1.5%. It is predicted that
the Indonesian population will reach 280 million
people by 2025. This will surely lead to
consequences in formulating policies on water
resource management and usage. Water resources
are necessary to fulfill the people's daily needs as
well as to support national economic growth, [1].
The debates on water resource management and
its conflicts of interest regarding (1) The state's
tendency to privatize water resource management.
This gives private companies a great opportunity to
be involved in managing and distributing water to
society; (2) The great control of international
institutions on water resource management, as part
of the effort to change the water crisis into a market
opportunity to obtain profits; (3) The inherited
destruction of the management system developed by
the former controlling regime will not only cause
water scarcity, but it will also impact the economic,
social, and political aspects of Indonesia’s
agricultural society, [2].
A current problem related to water resource
usage is the ever-decreasing quality and quantity of
water resources. The clean water supply decreases
due to water management policies that are directed
toward water privatization. Another problem
regards the decreasing quality of both groundwater
and surface water. This is due to domestic and
industrial water usage that lacks awareness of
environmental sustainability, [3].
Another problem includes water scarcity and
drought during the dry season. On the contrary,
there is an uncontrollable water supply or floods
during the rainy season. These are complex and
complicated issues that the government and society
continually face, as these unresolved water
problems reoccur annually. Such a condition may
cause a water crisis if left unresolved, which will in
turn decrease agricultural production that requires
adequate water supply. Conflicts on water resources
always happen in several areas, especially conflicts
on clean water resource management. This is
because people have no awareness of the protection
of clean water resources. In this case, people lack
the understanding of protecting the Bengawan Solo
river watershed area, which is one of the suppliers
of clean water in several regencies in the Ex-
Surakarta Residency area,
According to the Head of the Water Resource
Management Service of Central Java, Nidhom
Azhari, there is a concerning rate of water volume
shrinkage in Kedung Ombo dam, Boyolali. Then,
The data of the Ministry of Environment of 2010
states that the Gajah Mungkur dam also experienced
volume shrinkage. Table 1 shows the detailed
statistics of the Kedung Ombo Dam and Gajah
Mungkur Dam.
Table 1. Statistics of the Kedung Ombo Dam and
Gajah Mungkur Dam
Location
Characteristics
Details
Kedung
Ombo Dam,
Boyolali
Regency, [4].
Original Water
Volume
500 million m3
Current Water
Volume
200 million m3
Water volume
shrinkage percentage
42.67% (723.16 million
m3)
Function
To water around 0.63 km2
of agricultural land in
Grobogan, Kudus, Pati,
Demak Regencies, and
Semarang City.
Gajah
Mungkur
Dam,
Wonogiri
Regency, [5].
Original Water
Volume
400 million m3
Current Water
Volume
100 million m3
Width of the Dam in
2000
66.2354 km2
Width of the Dam in
2003
53.155 km2
The Change in the
Dam's Area
13.0804 km2
Function
To water around 1.23 km2
of land in Sukoharjo,
Karanganyar, and Sragen
Regencies.
If the volumes of those two largest dams in
Central Java fail to increase, there is a concern that
the water supply is not enough to water the
agricultural lands around it. This condition may
threaten the food resilience of the people in those
areas.
Inadequate water resource management may
potentially cause conflicts in the agricultural,
industrial, and domestic sectors. It may also lead to
trouble in fulfilling the people's needs for clean and
drinkable water. Water resources were initially used
by the farmers for agricultural activities. But they
were then shifted to fulfill the urban population's
need for clean water. This leads to the decrease of
water resource debt and is prone to cause conflicts
of interest. This condition is even worse if that shift
causes a decrease in the cropping index or if it
causes crop failure. Such a condition will certainly
trigger the farmers' anger.
Such conflicts have happened in some regions,
where farmers gather to destroy the drinkable water
installation of the Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum
(PDAM/Municipal Waterworks). According to
these farmers, this installation symbolizes the
usurpation of the water that they have received from
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Arief Budiono, Iramadya Dyah Marjanah,
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Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
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generation to generation; thus causing crop failure,
[6]. Indonesia is a country that has ratified the
Sustainable Development Goals 2030, where one of
its goals is to decrease poverty and famine, [7].
Therefore, the issues that happen in the Ex-
Surakarta Residency area prove that the government
is not truly serious about carrying out the
Sustainable Development Goals 2030.
Realizing the intensity of the water resource
conflicts and the importance of finding solutions,
scientific communities propose solutions through
research on the new approach to managing water
resources. Such research is also aimed at resolving
water resource-related conflicts. The ecoregional
approach is one of the many proposed methods of
water resource conflict resolution. This approach is
a manner of managing water resources by
emphasizing the importance of water and natural
resource conservation without focusing on the
administrative boundaries of regional areas. Apart
from that, this approach can assess the natural
aspects of the environment such as the condition of
the ecosystem, [8].
In writing this paper, the authors also used
several previous research for literature review to
ensure that this research yield more valuable results.
Two previous researches were conducted by the
authors themselves (with the same author
composition). This is because this research is a
continuation of previous research. In this case, the
authors conducted a continuation research to obtain
more valid and comprehensive results. Each author
was focused on different themes of research related
to the Bengawan Solo River.
In a previous research entitled ”Analysis of the
Issues on Bengawan Solo River Basin Management
Policies”, the authors discussed how the Bengawan
Solo River has been polluted. Researchers found
that the perpetrators were companies that only had
an orientation for profit. These evil companies
utilized the weak enforcement of Law No. 17 on
Water Resources. The writers recommend stricter
law enforcement to eradicate the pollution of the
Bengawan Solo River, [3].
Another research that became part of
comprehensive and sustainable research is a study
entitled ”Critical Analysis of River Basin
Management Regulation in Bengawan Solo for
Water Tourism: Local Legislation in 7 Regencies.”
Here, the researchers comprehensively analyzed
local regulations (regional regulations) in seven
regencies in which the Bengawan Solo River flows,
namely Surakarta, Wonogiri, Sukoharjo,
Karanganyar, Bojonegoro, and Sragen regencies. In
this research, the authors discussed regional
regulations on the usage of the Bengawan Solo
River for water tourism. It was found that some
areas cannot organize water tourism due to severe
pollution. The authors also found that no regional
regulations specifically regulated sanctions for
corporations that commit environmental pollution,
[3].
Another previous research that the authors used
as a reference in this literature review was an article
written by Suprapto. This article analyzed the
Bengawan Solo River from the aspect of societal
conflicts to seize Bengawan Solo River water
resources. This research is crucial as the largest
source of conflict in the management of the
Bengawan Solo River is the distribution of water
resources. It is a highly urgent issue. The total
population that resides proximate to the river flow
reaches 2,500,000 people. Thus, conflicts on the
division of water resources are prone to cause
violence.
Then, another research related to this issue was
the dissertation of Sutopo which explained the
relationship between the condition of the Bengawan
Solo River and the conflict from the perspective of
environmental security. It was found that the root of
the conflict was the increasingly limited amount of
enjoyable water resources due to massive pollution.
Society demands an end to pollution to recover the
quality of water, [9].
The aims of this research are: (1) To describe the
water resource conflicts in the Surakarta area,
Central Java, Indonesia, (2) To identify the
governmental policies on water resource
management that cause water resource conflicts, and
(3) To formulate ecoregion-based water resource
management policy model to resolve water resource
conflicts. These three objectives are hoped to
provide a breakthrough by creating a new
perspective on the importance of managing water
resources in the Surakarta area so that it can provide
a chance to save the lives of future generations.
2 Methods
This was a socio-legal research method with a
doctrinal and a non-doctrinal approach. In the
doctrinal approach, the law was conceived as a
normative instrument. Meanwhile, in the non-
doctrinal approach, the law was conceived as an
empirical symptom that was observable in the realm
of experiences in the Bengawan Solo rivers. The
data analysis was carried out through the following
stages: (1) In the first stage, the researcher analyzed
the cause of conflicts, the polarization, and the
stages. Then, the researcher identified the tendency
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Arief Budiono, Iramadya Dyah Marjanah,
Wardah Yuspin, Trias Hernanda,
Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
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for conflicts to arise; (2) Then, the researcher
inventoried the water resource management policies
that caused conflicts and analyzed the
synchronization of the various stipulations that
regulate water resource management. In this
research, the authors also compared this issue with
the condition of other rivers in Indonesia (the
Brantas River in Indonesia). Through these
approaches, the authors may obtain a suitable
solution for the research problem.
3 Results
3.1 A General Description of the Water
Conflict in Surakarta Ex-Residency
The water resource conflicts in the Surakarta Ex-
Residency may be divided into two, namely vertical
and horizontal conflicts. The former happens
between the people and the Regional Government or
between the people and the water-managing
institutions. Meanwhile, the latter happens between
city/regency regional governments and also between
the city/regency governments and the water-
managing institutions.
Based on the previous research, water resource
conflicts are triggered by people’s attitude that lacks
care for the environment. An attitude of care for the
environment has a great role in creating
environmental conflicts if it is not carried out
properly. Environmental conflicts, including water
resource conflicts, will always exist in the Surakarta
area, [10]. Water resource conflicts can be simulated
as shown in Figure 1.
The plot in Figure 1 shows that the research on
environmental preservation also encompasses water
resource preservation. On one hand, the spread of
the correlation has a high variation, but it is
dominated by a correlation that shows a positive
effect
On the other hand, the existence of a negative
correlation in the plot Figure 1 leads to a chance for
the occurrence of water resource conflicts, [10].
An indicator of the existence of water resource
conflicts is the decreasing river water quality at the
Surakarta ex-residency due to pollution. Table 2
indicates the pollution that happens in several rivers
in the Surakarta ex-residency area.
Fig. 1: Water Conflict Plot Based on Meta-Analysis
Research
Table 2. River Water Pollution Index in the
Surakarta Area
Name of River
Pollution
Index
Pollution Level
Jurang Gempal River,
Wonogiri Regency
5.09
Mildly Polluted
Nguter River, Sukoharjo
Regency
7.74
Mildly Polluted
Banmati River, Sukoharjo
Regency
16.20
Severely
Polluted
Peren River, Sukoharjo
Regency
16.21
Severely
Polluted
Ngombakan River, Grogol,
Sukoharjo Regency
19.76
Severely
Polluted
Bacem River, Sukoharjo
Regency
5.56
Mildly Polluted
Premulung Creek,
Surakarta City
13.77
Severely
Polluted
Pepe Creek, Surakarta City
19.77
Severely
Polluted
Jurug River, Surakarta City
16.21
Severely
Polluted
Cengklik Dam, Boyolali
Regency
2.03
Lightly Polluted
Jombor Dam, Klaten
Regency
4.81
Lightly Polluted
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Table 2 shows the water quality in the Surakarta
ex-residency area. Most of the rivers are polluted.
Such a condition is caused by several factors. First,
it is due to a conflict between policymakers and
society. Second, it is because society fails to comply
with the existing regulations, [3].
A water resource conflict happened in Boyolali
Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. A vertical water
resource conflict happened between farmers and the
regional government at Kener Village, Boyolali.
Another happened between Tlatar water spring users
and the Municipal Waterworks of Boyolali
Regency. The conflict happened because the
Municipal Waterworks of Boyolali Regency
prioritized the distribution of water to fulfill the
needs of the urban population. Meanwhile, there
was a decrease in the water distribution to the Kener
Village. This happened even though from
generation to generation, the Kener villagers
obtained water to fulfill their agricultural needs
from the Umbul Tlatar spring.
A water conflict also happened in Ngemplak
District, Boyolali. The people who are associated
with Gabungan Perkumpulan Petani Pengguna Air
(GP3A/Alliance of Water-Using Farmer
Association) demanded the reparation of damaged
waterways due to the development of a highway
project. The damaged waterways reached 8 km2.
Due to this, farmers experienced difficulties in
watering around 1 km2 of land. Thus, they faced the
Boyolali Regent and they planned to carry out a
demonstration to demand the revitalization of
damaged irrigation canals. In a dialog with the
society, the Boyolali government promised to repair
the damaged irrigation canals and asked the people
to restrain themselves from demonstrating – or
worse, from destroying the facilities of the highway
developmental project. The people promised to
support this highway project if the damaged water
canals were immediately repaired.
A vertical water resource conflict also occurred
between the people who are spring water users at
Kawangdowo District, Klaten Regency, with a
water-managing institution, Timore Limited
Company popularly known as AqDa. The water
users experienced losses as the river that watered
their rice field areas dried up due to the excessive
Sigedang spring water exploitation by Timore
Limited Company. The water users of Polonharjo
Regency also protested and demonstrated in front of
the Timore Limited Company office, demanding the
guarantee that water will still flow to their area to
water their rice fields. They also demanded that the
employees be recruited from the surrounding people
and that there be regional income transparency to
achieve regional welfare.
A water resource conflict also occurred at
Karanganyar Regency, where Ondo-Ondo spring
water users at Tawangmangu District protested the
distribution of water to another, namely to the area
that is part of Magetan Regency, East Java. The
water users, namely the farmers, demanded the
Karanganyar Regional Government immediately
stop the water distribution to other areas or to fairly
distribute the water, by prioritizing the local
farmers. If their demands were not fulfilled, they
threatened to close the water distribution to Magetan
Regency by force.
Meanwhile, a horizontal conflict happened
between the Klaten Regional Government and the
Municipal Waterworks of Surakarta City. The
conflict happened because the Klaten Regional
Government increased the water tariff to the
Surakarta area to Rp. 4.1 billion. Meanwhile, the
Surakarta Regional Government is only capable of
paying Rp. 1.5 billion. The Klaten Regent
threatened to limit or stop the water distribution
from Umbul Cokro, Klaten to the Surakarta area if
the Municipal Waterworks of Surakarta City failed
to pay the demanded price. The Regent also
threatened to divert the water distribution to expand
the Klaten people's agricultural irrigation and to
anticipate drought during the dry season.
A vertical conflict also happened when the
Karanganyar Regency Government increased the
water tariff from the Plesungan spring that flowed to
the Municipal Waterworks of Surakarta City – from
Rp. 9,000,000/month/well to Rp.
37,000,000/month/well. The Municipal Waterworks
of Surakarta City object to this rise as it will cause a
rise in the price of the water it manages. Apart from
that, the Plesungan Spring is located at the border of
the Karanganyar Regency and Surakarta City. For
years, the people who live at the border of these
areas have used the water for mutual benefit.
Formerly, the Plesungan Spring was under the
authority of the Central Java Provincial
Government.
The water resource conflict also happened in
Gupit Village, Nguter District, Sukoharjo Regency,
where part of the water source in that village is
polluted by waste of a textile factory which disposed
of its waste through several irrigation channels and
small rivers that then ends in the Bengawan Solo
River watershed. Worse, these polluted water bodies
emit a terrible odor. Conflicts in the Bengawan Solo
River watershed started from water resource
conflicts that happened to villages in Sukoharjo
Regency and Surakarta City, [3].
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From the data above, it can be analyzed that the
people of Surakarta, Indonesia, are placed under
traditional and charismatic dominations. Thus, the
legal regulation interpretations are not only
determined by the governmental apparatus but also
by the dominating forms that exist in that society,
[11]. In facing the issues of conflict, the people have
an autonomous power. This power exists and arrives
necessarily from the people themselves. Thus, it is
called original power. Without going through
various procedures or requirements, the autonomous
power actualizes itself spontaneously to resolve
conflicts according to the people's collective lives,
[12]. A requirement of collective life is an
atmosphere of order in the relations between
members of society. If society requires order and
good organization, the autonomous power will
display itself in the form of the power to regulate the
society itself. Then, it will present itself as a
principle in the relations between members of
society, [13].
In a changing society, a social dichotomy that
was formerly non-existent now exists – namely,
macro institutions or megastructures, such as capital
owners, governmental bureaucracy, organizations,
etc. These mega structures tend to alienate as well as
disempower small structures or individuals. Such a
condition creates dichotomies between interests,
namely between public interests and private
interests. This is prone to create crises. To resolve
these crises, some use mediating institutions to settle
issues between these two realms. These mediating
institutions include familial, governmental,
communal, and religious institutions, as well as non-
profit organizations, [14].
Society holds an important role in resolving
water resource-related conflicts, to undergo a
solidarity mission. It is society's natural
responsibility, as humans pursue a social life,
instead of a solitary one. Meanwhile, the society and
the regional government still lack an understanding
of the importance of water resources. This was
shown by their incompliance with the stipulated
regulations. Apart from that, environmental
protection-based laws tend to be ignored, even
though, if applied, they can change people's
behaviors to care for the environment, [10]. The
legal regulations that the society uses are parallel to
its type of solidarity. The collective life will be
guided well if there is freedom for its members to
form connections with other people, [15].
In the Brantas Rivers of Indonesia, the water
resources were resolved by several projects by the
government. The government built several dams and
reservoirs and distributed water from dams and
reservoirs. In the legal policy, the regional
government in the area of Brantas River decided to
inspect several corporations and force them to build
waste management from their factory. The water
resource conflicts may also be resolved by the water
advocation activists as paralegals. They have
adequate skills, capabilities, knowledge, and
willingness to facilitate the effort to retrieve the
rights of the people who are victims of water
conflicts, [16].
In undergoing their work, they cooperate with
society to carry out advocation activities, initiated
with a dialog on the ongoing issue. Apart from that,
they try to facilitate the people in thinking of a way
out of the problem. After that, they carry out
cooperative actions to demand the people's rights,
supported by the presence of the institutions and the
network of institutions/organizations that advocate
for water resources, [16].
The water resource conflicts in the Surakarta area
are not resolved through litigation, but it is carried
out through negotiation outside of court. Conflict
resolution outside of court is known as alternative
dispute resolution (ADR) and such a manner of
resolution model is closer to the settlement of
conflict resolution model, which contains authority
and law, that may be demanded of the conflicting
parties by the mediator. In this case, the traditional
approach towards conflict management and
regulation is generally based on mediation and
settlement negotiation. This approach may only
work if the conflicting parties agree to negotiate and
if they have something real to offer, [17].
Even so, the success of this alternative dispute
resolution model highly depends on the disputing
parties as well as on the mediator that accompanies
them. The parties involved in the dispute resolution
negotiation process are demanded to think, prioritize
conscience, and have a transparent, heart-to-heart
discussion without the effort to hide their interests
behind their backs. Because of that, so long as the
parties still have interests, a thorough resolution will
not be achieved.
3.2 Policies on Water Resource Management
Conflict Resolution
The Preamble of the Republic of Indonesia's 1945
Constitution sternly stipulates that the objective of
stately life is based on law. This means that the law
has supreme power. There are no other powers
above the law. In the effort to create a state based on
law and to achieve a stately life, the law becomes
the director, the engineer, and the planner to form a
legal society and achieve justice and welfare.
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Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
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The guarantee of the legal state and the state of
justice fails to provide certainty to the protection of
the environment and water resources. Water
resource conflicts and water management conflicts
occur in almost all regencies in the Surakarta ex-
Regency. But there is a conflict that brings negative
impacts to society which happened in Sukoharjo
Regency. This conflict was the installation of an
illegal waste pipe from a textile factory that is
directly disposed of to the river without going
through a reduction process beforehand, [3]. Such a
conflict brings the impact of pollution to several
Regencies that are passed by this river. Based on
this case, people question the guarantee of the rights
of justice and the rights of sustainability of water
resources.
The rights to water resources are part of human
rights. Thus, this right is not only regulated in
Article 33 Clause (3) of the Republic of Indonesia's
1945 Constitution but it is also regulated in Article
28H. Article 33 clause (3) of the 1945 Constitution
states, "The earth, water, and riches contained in
them are maximally used for the people's welfare."
Then, clause (4) states, "The national economy is
established based on economic democracy, with the
principles of togetherness, efficiency, justice,
sustainability, environmental friendliness, and
independence, by still maintaining the balance of
national development and unity.”
In this case, water resources are not economic
goods, as it regards the interests and the needs of
many people. Thus, as the organization with the
highest authority, the state must position itself as the
mandate-holder of power. It must run its roles in
regulating, controlling, and utilizing water. It may
do so by managing water with the orientation of
mutual benefit. It must be carried out fairly to create
social welfare for many people. In the perspective
of law enforcement, according to Lawrence
Friedman, to achieve success in enforcing the law,
there must be consideration for the legal substance,
legal structure, legal culture, and legal impacts, [18].
The issuing of Law No. 7 of 2014 on Water
Resources has resulted in some problems. Article 9
clause (1) states, "The right to use water may be
granted to individuals or business entities with the
permission of the Government or the Regional
Government according to their authorities." This
clause opens the opportunity for privatization of the
water resource management by private entities and
the neglect of the roles of state-owned or regional
government-owned business enterprises as
mandated by Article 33 clause (2), which states,
“Production sectors that are crucial for the state and
that has control over the lives of many must be
under the control of the state.” Then, Article 45
clause (3) states, “The water resource businesses …
may be carried out by individuals, business entities,
or through a cooperation between business entities.”
The Law on Water Resources may potentially
create horizontal conflicts, [19]. Article 48 clause
(1) states, “The water resource business in a river
area that is carried out by building and/or using
distribution canals may only be used for other river
areas if the water supply surpasses the people’s
needs at that river area.” This article departs from
the understanding that rivers are understood using
the administrative perspective, though, in reality,
rivers may flow beyond administrative borders, such
as between regencies or even between provinces.
This stipulation is against the human rights that are
regulated in Article 28H clause (1) of the 1945
Constitution.
Water is not mere H2O. But it must be
understood in the context of an ecosystem, where
water is one of the life-supporting systems. The
paradigm in water management regulations must
consider and anticipate the water’s sustainability
and regeneration, [20]. Economic development is
allowed so long as it does not damage water in the
ecosystem function. Because of that, the water
resource bill must sternly stipulate that water users
do not necessarily possess that water resource. This
is because as a natural resource, water is not man-
made; but it is a blessing from God. Water resources
may be used, but they cannot be owned – or worse,
exploited. Thus, water users need to be responsible
for preserving water, [21].
The rampant number of water resource conflicts
in Indonesia cannot be separated from the
developmental orientation and the governmental
perception of the existence of water resources in
Surakarta. These water resource usage conflicts
happen not only due to the limited water potential,
but also due to the conflict of interests with the
developmental sector, the control of the society and
the private entities of the water resource, arrogance
of interregional power, and water resource
management approach errors. An alternative conflict
solution includes involving the society in planning
and managing the water resources and an
ecosystem-based approach to watershed
management with the following principle: one river
basin, one plan, one integrated environmental
management system, [22].
The causes of water resource conflicts are also
inseparable from human behavior. A very visible
cause is the terrible regulation of regional spatial
planning and the lack of supervision over the
activities in that area. So far, especially during the
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regional autonomy era, there has been a wrong
understanding of interregional spatial planning.
The upstream area that is the largest water
supplier is left to think alone in formulating its
spatial planning and supervising the behavior of the
people – who usually prefer to farm seasonal crops
or who often explore protected forests. In
consequence, there is high sedimentation of the
earth's surface at the upstream area, bringing
sedimentation to the flowing river.
Meanwhile, downstream, the Regional
Government is faced with disempowerment in
managing their city's spatial planning and their
citizen's activities. The river that flows at the center
of the city is surrounded by buildings, thus there are
no more open green spaces that function as safety
belts. Strangely, these buildings often possess
building permits. Worse, there are also illegal non-
permanent buildings that jut into the river,
narrowing the river's flowing area.
The government does not dare to act upon these
illegal homes or buildings that unreasonably
obtained permits. Worse, there is a high
sedimentation rate and a lack of efforts to carry out
countermeasures against the increasing amount of
weed and the regular mounds of trash. These
problems disturb the river's function as the media
that channels water. Then, in the rainy season, the
river can no longer function well, and the high debt
of water causes floods.
In the regional autonomy era, there is already an
emphasis on the importance of interregional
cooperation. But at the practical level, there are still
many regions that fail to fully understand it. It is
difficult to carry out this interregional cooperation,
especially when it regards environmental and
natural resource management, including water
management. There are still many conflicts in water
management between regions.
There are many governmental policies at the
national, provincial, and city/regency levels that
contribute to the emergence of conflicts. Thus, it is
difficult to resolve the water resource conflicts that
occur. If there are categorizations, these policies
tend to be directed at various forms of pragmatic
orientations, including economic orientation,
privatization, unsynchronized legal regulations,
regional egos, and lack of a just and even
distribution of water resources, which are described
as follows:
First, is economic orientation. This includes the
conflict that involved the Surakarta City
Government and Klaten Regional government, as
well as the Surakarta government and the
Karanganyar Regional Government. It started from
the Decrees of the Klaten Regent and the
Karanganyar Regent that drastically increased the
price of every cubic meter of water, causing
continuous conflicts.
Second, the spirit of privatization. Almost all
conflicts that happen in the Surakarta area are
inseparable from the interest in the privatization of
water resources. It includes the conflict between PT.
Aqua and the Klaten people, where the company
obtained the permit to exploit a local spring, caused
a drastic decrease in water debt for the people.
There is limited water for the people's farms,
making the people worry that their crops will fail.
Third, unsynchronized legal regulations. A
policy model that causes conflicts is apparent in the
conflict between the Surakarta City Government and
the Klaten Regional Government. The Surakarta
Mayor argued that there is no legal basis for the
Surakarta government to have to pay for the water.
Even, the Surakarta Mayor has repeatedly stated that
the main problem is not the amount of money that
has to be paid, but whether or not the legal basis that
becomes a reference of this decree exists. Even
though there are already related regulations, for
example, the Regional Decree of the Central Java
Province No. 7 of 2002 on Taxation on Surface
Water Intake and Usage and Klaten Regional
Decree No. No. 7 of 2012 on the Third Party
Contribution to the Region. The legal basis for
interregional cooperation of Subosukawonosraten is
regulated in the Inter-City/Regency Common
Regulation No. 10/2001, No. 590/398/2001, No. 42/
2001, No. 5/2001, No. 54.a/2001 also No.
590/1414/2001 which were signed on October 30th,
2001. This legal basis is then extended with the
Common Regulation of Surakarta, Boyolali,
Sukoharjo, Karanganyar, Wonogiri, Sragen dan
Klaten Mayors/Regencies No. 11.D/2006, No.
36/2006, No. 26/2006, No. 8/2006, No. 26.a/2006,
and No. 1/2006 that was signed on October 30th,
2006 and that applies forever. Among the things that
this Common Regulation stipulates is cooperation
in the clean water sector.
Fourth, the regional ego becomes another cause
behind water-related issues at Surakarta ex-
Residency. Since 1998 or post-Reformation, using
the footsteps of regional autonomy, the areas that
have water springs have the right to manage the
water resources that they have. This authority places
them in a highly profitable position, both
economically and politically. Not all aspects of
regional autonomy support the existence of water
resource management in the regions, one of them is
how regions do not have the authority to manage
water resources that originate from watersheds.
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Fifth, there is an uneven distribution of water
resources for the people. It is a fact that the case of
uneven distribution causes water resource conflicts.
This case has involved conflicts between farmers
and also between farmers and the water irrigation
managers. This triggers protests or even prolonged
conflicts.
Sixth, regulation introduction is seldom held.
This leads to the non-compliance of business
owners, the government, and society. Regulations
are made to create order and peace in a structure,
[23]. Some citizens of Surakarta City suggest that
they have made peace with the condition and regard
that the existing regulations cannot give them a
solution to preventing water resource conflicts
around them.
Seventh, there needs to be regulations that not
only regulate law enforcement but also those that
become a solution to water resource conflicts. These
regulations can be made like a regulation that adopts
the principle of sustainable city development.
4 Discussion
Concerning water resource management in Japan,
[24], to support the agricultural sector, the water
supply is taken from rivers, groundwater, and water
reservoirs. Irrigation network facilities are
developed to distribute the water to agricultural
locations. The farmers have a high awareness of
operating, maintaining, and using water. Thus, there
are seldom any conflicts in the water resource
usage. In implementing the operational,
maintenance, and water usage activities, the farmers
of each area (chiku) form organizations that aim to
manage and regulate the water assets, named
"tochikairyouku”. This organization associates with
water-using farmers whose scope of responsibility
includes carrying out operational, maintenance, and
water distribution managerial activities. In the
amendment of the law that regulates the water
resources in Japan, this organization has legally
been accommodated, [25].
a research entitled ”Watershed of Begawan Solo
Upstream above Gajah Mungkur Dam, Wonogiri”,
showed that the Begawan Solo upstream watershed
is highly strategic, considering that the area watered
by the Gajah Mungkur dam is very extensive. Its
role is crucial in the Regional Autonomy era, as the
water flows in several regions. It is the mainstay to
water the agricultural land in Sukoharjo, Klaten,
Surakarta, Karanganyar, and Wanogiri Regencies.
The watershed development is directed at
developing and rehabilitating facilities to control
floods and erosion, supply clean water, and increase
crop production. But, behind that, there are conflicts
of interest in water allocation and distribution, that
involve different water user sectors that involve
several cities and regencies along the Begawan Solo
watershed, [26].
To resolve the conflicts of interests related to
interregional water allocation and distribution, the
regulations and the usage of water at the Gajah
Mungkur dam and the Begawan Solo watershed
cannot be separated. On the contrary, it should be
holistically interrelated based on the ecosystemic
approach. There cannot be partial regulations on the
watershed areas from the upstream up to the
downstream, as they are interrelated. Thus, to
prevent prolonged interregional conflicts of interest,
in the era of regional autonomy, there needs to be a
centered regulatory policy with coordination and
authority divisions between the Central, Provincial,
and City/Regency Governments, [26].
Decentralization opens up the chance for
interregional conflicts if these regions tend to be
economically unequal, [27]. This may be seen from
the low Regional Original Income, the income of
the real sectors, and social inequality, seen from the
high poverty rate. Apart from that, the high
population rate also highly burdens the regions to
push socio-economic development. Apart from the
factors above, lack of coordination and unclear legal
regulations also have the potential to create conflicts
in interregional water usage or water distribution.
The current decentralization policy still potentially
causes water-related conflicts; thus, the government
should formulate a clear legal regulation that is
agreed upon by the related parties.
The ecoregional approach is a new paradigm in
spatial developmental planning, [28]. This approach
is one of the pioneering thoughts of sustainable
development. It is understood that the development
planning theories or concepts in an area keep on
shifting according to the changes in the people's
social, economic, cultural, and political conditions.
In the middle of the shift of developmental concepts
or approaches in the context of natural resources,
including those of water resources, there is also the
emergence of conservatory concepts, whose
approaches are no longer aimed merely at achieving
economic welfare, but have shifted towards the
direction of the sustainable developmental concept.
The essence of sustainable development is to
internalize environmental aspects in planning
developmental activities. The Sustainable Areal
Planning Approach is an implementing instrument
of development in the current era. It may be
manifested through the Ecoregional Approach. The
main characteristic of this approach is the planning
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that is adapted to ecologic boundaries. It follows the
natural characteristic similarities as well as natural
phenomena – or ecoregions – instead of following
administrative boundaries, [25].
Law No. 32 of 2009 on Environmental Protection
and Management has placed the ecoregional model
as a principle. As a consequence, it must be
implemented as a basis that is complied with by
regional governments in formulating policies on
environmental protection and management,
including policies on regional water resource
management. The ecoregional principle means that
environmental protection and management must
consider characteristics of natural resources,
ecosystems, geographic conditions, local people's
culture, and local wisdom.
The ecoregional approach places water resource
issues in a more extensive and more comprehensive
scope, that does not acknowledge administrative
areal boundaries. Thus, the water resource
management issues cannot be understood based on
the interests of regional egos, as its management is
interregional.
The efforts to resolve water resource issues with
the ecoregional approach are carried out by
involving related areas, namely regional areas and
especially upstream and downstream areas.
Regional governments must have a mutual
understanding to think about water management,
based on a mutual agreement, written in the form of
a memorandum of understanding between regional
governments.
The water resource management with the
ecoregional approach has attracted the attention of
many. It is carried out by connecting water resource
management issues with environmental ones. The
water management that produces water-related
services (in the downstream area) has the
responsibility to carry out areal conservation (in the
upstream area) for the environmental services it
provides. This is so that the water – as a source of
life and as a life necessity – may be sustained.
The ecoregional approach may be carried out
through some steps. It starts by creating a mutual
agreement between regional governments, that
contain the system of water resource management,
the mutual responsibilities, the rights and
responsibilities of each party, and also the
compensation obtained by the regional government
at the upstream area. This mutual agreement is then
implemented by each regional government. The
legitimization is in the form of Regional Decrees
that regulate the imposition of responsibilities and
the rights of interregional water resource
management, beyond administrative areal
boundaries.
In formulating a policy on water resource
conflict management, the ecoregional approach
must be supported by the society’s involvement
through participative approaches. In formulating the
water resource developmental laws, the thoughts
that are rooted in the participative approach must be
accommodated. It is an implication of the strong
efforts in implementing a democracy-based
developmental model. Because of that, the legal
renewal that will be implemented must position the
law in a social community and with humanity as its
main focus.
The participative approach is a deconstruction
that places society in a detrimental position in
managing environmental issues. In the legal sector,
the participative approach is apparent in formulating
regulations, implementing laws, and monitoring
resolutions of natural resource disputes.
Democratization in the law formulation is
characterized by the entrance of the people's spirit.
It is manifested in various forms, both directly or
indirectly through houses of representatives. The
participative approach places society as a subject in
determining the management and the resolution of
water resource issues. It is born from the demands
of the democratization spirit that places the society
as the holder of sovereignty.
Socio-political processes in this state have
deconstructed various buildings and orders. They
have been liquidated to their original form, namely
"the people". The people have liquidated the Houses
of Representatives and the election mechanisms of
leadership. Slowly, Indonesia experienced a change
from this deconstruction– from an artificial society
to something more natural, [29]. This spirit of pure,
people-based democracy becomes the great current
that will push change in this country, including legal
changes, especially in water resource management.
In the future, to propose suggestions for carrying
out legal renewal related to natural resources and the
environment, the people's autonomic power must be
further accommodated. Organizations of interest,
such as non-governmental organizations and
environmental organizations must be placed in a
better position to encourage the growth of civil
society, [30]. Based on that, the society must be
encouraged and they must be filled with the spirit to
increase and strengthen their bargaining positions,
including in resolving conflicts that happen in the
diverse and complex communal life.
The legal policies on water resource
development must place the society at greater access
to strengthen the people's autonomy, to reach a civil
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society. Social access includes access to public
information, access to participation, and access to
justice. The people's rights to the water resources
must be better accommodated. Then, the state's
obligation to guarantee the fulfillment of that right
must be better implemented.
5 Conclusion
The water resource management conflicts at
Surakarta ex-Residency have simultaneously
increased with the increase of the water demand.
Vertical water resource management conflicts
happened between the society and the companies
that have control over water and springs, due to
profit-oriented water management policies. Apart
from that, there are horizontal conflicts, such as
those that happened between Regional Governments
as a result of an inaccurate understanding of
regional autonomy, that resulted in water resource
management that is based on regional egos.
The governmental policies that resolve water
resource management conflicts at the city/regency,
provincial, or central levels contribute to causing
water-related conflicts. This is because these
policies are directed to various pragmatic
orientations and regional egos, namely: (1)
economic orientation, (2) privatization, and (3) the
unsynchronized laws that regulate water resource
management between regional governments that
prioritize the interests of their regions.
The water resource conflict management policy
with the ecoregional approach is carried out through
several steps. There must be a mutual agreement
between the Regional Governments, which is then
followed up by each Regional Government. The
legitimization is in the form of Regional Decrees
that regulate the imposition of responsibilities and
rights in water management. The water resource
management policies must give greater access to the
people. The people's access accommodates the
people's rights and the government's obligation to
guarantee the good fulfillment of those rights.
Then, it is suggested that there must be: (1) A
mutual agreement between Regional Governments
in the Surakarta ex-residency area must be
formulated in managing water resources. It includes
the usage of water resources and their preservation
through conservation that must be carried out by
each regional government; (2) There needs to be a
review of the profit-oriented water resource
management policies from the regional governments
that direct to privatization, considering that the
water resource is a limited non-economic resource,
meanwhile, the current water resource management
is profit-oriented; and (3) The regional government
needs to have the courage to take over the water
resources that have so far been managed by private-
owned entities and that do not have orientation for
social welfare. In this case, the state-owned business
entity, namely the Municipal Waterworks, must take
over its management. This may also be carried out
by partnering with private-owned entities, with the
Municipal waterworks as the more dominant party
in managing the business or in obtaining profit. All
this is aimed at achieving maximum welfare for the
people.
Acknowledgement:
This research was funded by Universitas
Muhammadiyah Surakarta through National
Cooperation Grant Research/Hibah Penelitian
Kerjasama Nasional)
Nomenclature:
No.
Abbreviation
Meaning
1
m2
Meter square
2
m3
Cubic meter
3
km2
Kilometer square
4
km3
Cubic kilometer
5
Rp.
Rupiah (Indonesian currency)
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Wardah Yuspin, Trias Hernanda,
Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
- Budiono: Conceived the research and provided
materials and data for the research.
- Marjanah: Provided materials and data for the
research as well as designed the methods.
- Yuspin: Selected research data as well as analyzed
and interpreted the data.
- Hernanda: Analyzed the data and provided a
description of the results.
- Absori and Mirielle: Wrote the introduction and
arranged the script according to the instructions.
- Nurhayati: Analyzed and interpreted the data and
wrote the paper.
- Ogli: Analyzed and interpreted the data and
reviewed the paper.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
This research was funded by Universitas
Muhammadiyah Surakarta through Competitive
Research Lembaga Riset Ilmiah (LRI).
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
_US
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2024.20.48
Arief Budiono, Iramadya Dyah Marjanah,
Wardah Yuspin, Trias Hernanda,
Absori Absori, Moh Indra Bangsawan, Tomás Mateo Ramon
E-ISSN: 2224-3496
503
Volume 20, 2024