Abstract: This study investigates using augmented reality (AR) to assist warehouse operators. By em-

ploying head-mounted displays (HMDs), the AR application overlays relevant navigational information

and inventory data directly onto the user’s ﬁeld of vision, enabling a hands-free interaction system that

creates a more eﬃcient workﬂow. Incorporating a marker-based AR architecture oﬀers precise item lo-

calization and navigation support, addressing common issues such as time-consuming item checks and

potential navigational errors while moving in the warehouse. Through the assistance of these processes,

the AR system aims to enhance the eﬃciency and precision of warehouse operations. This research

highlights the advantages and potential challenges of implementing AR solutions in industrial settings,

emphasizing the need for innovative warehouse logistics and management approaches.

Key-Words: - AR, Warehouse, QR code, Wayﬁnding, Warehouse assistance, Head-Mounted Display

Received: March 9, 2024. Revised: July 11, 2024. Accepted: August 7, 2024. Published: September 25, 2024.

1 Introduction

In recent years, augmented reality (AR) has been

increasingly used in industry to assist workers.

Many companies are integrating AR tools to sup-

port their employees by providing quick access

to information and guidance, improving the ef-

ﬁciency and accuracy of their tasks’ execution.

AR’s versatility allows for application in areas

such as assembly, maintenance, quality control,

and workplace management, [1], [2]. One of the

particular areas where AR has a signiﬁcant im-

pact is warehouse operations, where AR can sig-

niﬁcantly improve the performance of warehouse

workers, especially when head-mounted displays

(HMDs) are used by overlaying relevant data di-

rectly into the workers’ ﬁeld of vision. This hands-

free access to data, navigation support and assis-

tance in performing individual tasks ultimately

increases productivity and eﬀectiveness.

Managing warehouse shelves is a crucial yet

time-consuming task for workers, involving care-

ful inspection of box contents, quantity veriﬁca-

tion, and adherence to order forms to avoid errors

and unnecessary waste, [3]. Typically, employees

have to physically inspect shelves, take notes, and

update computer systems, which can lead to de-

lays and mistakes, [3]. To solve these problems,

some papers have suggested using AR to stream-

line the workﬂow to reduce the distance between

the worker and the computer, thus enabling a

faster and more accurate process, [4], [5]. In these

cases, AR is often implemented using markers to

identify each item or shelf location, [4], creating

a precise but complex system for tracking each

item in the inventory. This approach requires ex-

tensive maintenance and may introduce potential

error sources. Although these solutions are eﬀec-

tive, they can be overly complex to implement and

maintain in an active warehouse environment.

Another notable application of AR in ware-

houses, particularly in industrial environments,

is assisting with wayﬁnding and navigation. AR

can align navigation information with the physical

world and eﬀectively show the way to users, [6].

To achieve accurate navigation in indoor spaces

AR for warehouses: a marker-based augmented system for

navigation and inventory management

LEONARDO VEZZANI1, FEDERICA MORO2, FRANCESCO STRADA1

FEDERICO PIERI2, ANDREA BOTTINO1

1Department of Control and Computer Engineering

Politecnico di Torino

Turin

ITALY

2Cluster Reply

Turin

ITALY

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT

DOI: 10.37394/232015.2024.20.42

Leonardo Vezzani, Federica Moro,

Francesco Strada, Federico Pieri, Andrea Bottino

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

453

Volume 20, 2024

where traditional geolocation technologies (e.g.

GPS) are not precise enough to work properly, re-

searchers have explored marker-based and mark-

erless navigation aids.

Markerless AR navigation has been investi-

gated for navigation in complex buildings, [7],

in multi-ﬂoor environments, [8], and in challeng-

ing indoor conditions such as dark environment,

[9]. However, markerless applications can be de-

manding and may not run smoothly on HMDs

or require additional hardware to be carried by

the user, [10]. For this reason, HMD applications

often rely on markers for precise user position-

ing. Marker-based navigation approaches rely on

QR codes or other markers that are added to the

environment, [8], [11]. Some studies use natural

markers such as signs, emergency exits, and fur-

niture to aid navigation, [12], [13], [14]. Hybrid

solutions combining markers and natural features

have been developed to provide coherent naviga-

tion instructions aligned with the physical world,

[15], [16], [17], although they are not yet opti-

mized for HMDs.

Despite extensive research on AR navigation,

few studies have focused on the use of HMDs to

provide AR navigation instructions, [6], [10], [18].

The study by [10], tested four diﬀerent solutions

to support route planning and showed that AR

navigation cues that blend into the physical en-

vironment are more eﬀective in wayﬁnding than

non-AR cues. However, they also require more

computational power.

This paper introduces an innovative AR appli-

cation designed for warehouse logistics, mainte-

nance, and management, creating an AR tool that

assists the operators in warehouse inspection and

navigation. This application allows warehouse op-

erators to work in the warehouse and interact

with a computer while keeping their hands free

at all times. Additionally, the AR app leverages

the operator’s positional information to provide

wayﬁnding assistance through the warehouse and

facilitate the interaction with the inventory data

of the nearby shelving, preventing potential er-

rors. Utilizing see-through AR HMDs and a min-

imal number of markers, this application provides

logistics and navigation support for warehouse

workers in a comprehensive solution, facilitating

seamless transitions between diﬀerent tasks.

2 Methods & Results

The complexity of warehouse environments and

the high volume of goods handled daily require in-

novative solutions to increase productivity and re-

duce errors. This is where augmented reality can

play a transformative role. The work described

in this paper has emerged from Cluster Reply’s1

Augmented Warehouse initiative, which aims to

develop innovative solutions to improve ware-

house management and assist warehouse workers.

The initiative focuses on addressing speciﬁc chal-

lenges, such as optimizing shelf management, im-

proving navigation and reducing errors in inven-

tory management by implementing a tool specif-

ically designed for warehouse operators. The fol-

lowing methods were used to design and imple-

ment the AR applications developed as part of

this initiative.

2.1 Requirements

The requirements for this project are divided into

design requirements and functional requirements.

The design requirements for this project are to

develop a tool that is: (i) usable on HMDs; (ii)

easy to maintain and update; and (iii) adaptable

to diﬀerent customer needs.

The functional requirements for this project

address two main tasks that workers could most

beneﬁt from AR assistance: Storage Inspection

and Wayﬁnding. By assisting operators in these

tasks, we can enable quicker task execution, re-

duce fatigue, and prevent errors, thus signiﬁcantly

enhancing warehouse productivity and worker

satisfaction.

Storage inspection requires the operator to ac-

cess several pieces of information simultaneously

to be most eﬀective: location, stock, and pend-

ing tasks on a particular item are essential to

optimize the worker’s eﬀort. For instance, the

operator should be able to ﬁnd a speciﬁc shelf

among many in the warehouse quickly, know its

content, including details such as size and quan-

tity of items, and access its status in the system,

such as how many items are on the shelf are to be

shipped and where they are headed. Additionally,

the worker is required to manage the shelf’s con-

tent and update related data in real-time. Our

application aims to create a tool that allows the

user to accomplish all these tasks while staying

in front of the shelving and accessing its informa-

tion via a simple and easy-to-use AR interface to

improve workﬂow eﬃciency.

Due to its size, navigating within a large ware-

house can be another signiﬁcant source of errors

and waste of time, and even an expert operator

may need help ﬁnding the desired location. For

this reason, we decided to implement a wayﬁnd-

ing assistance tool for the workers. For eﬀective

wayﬁnding assistance, AR should provide clear

instructions for workers to reach their destina-

1www.reply.com/cluster-reply/

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT

DOI: 10.37394/232015.2024.20.42

Leonardo Vezzani, Federica Moro,

Francesco Strada, Federico Pieri, Andrea Bottino

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

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Volume 20, 2024

tion within the warehouse, [8], [10]. By display-

ing a line through diﬀerent corridors and areas,

the operator is guided to their destination. This

wayﬁnding tool optimizes movement time from

one point to another and prevents mistakes, en-

hancing overall productivity.

2.2 Implementation

To implement an AR application that oﬀers these

features, we utilized the Unity Engine2version

2021.3.23f and the SDK MRTK 3.0 to build the

application for various HMDs. Speciﬁcally, to

prevent motion sickness in workers, we decided

to rely on a see-through HMD (i.e., Hololens 2),

as many users during preliminary tests felt pass-

through HMDs uneasy in terms of oﬀered ﬁeld of

view, distortion and latency.

Figure 1: The application architecture

We adopted a marker-based solution to opti-

mize tracking accuracy in large spaces, leveraging

2d barcodes (i.e., QR codes) to track the user’s

position within the warehouse. The application

architecture is illustrated in Fig. 1. Each shelv-

ing in the warehouse is equipped with a single QR

code that identiﬁes it in the augmented applica-

tion. The application employs a digital twin of

the warehouse containing all the geometrical in-

formation of the building, as well as the position

and identiﬁcation values for each QR code placed

in the warehouse. This digital twin is accessible

by the Augmented Warehouse Manager (AWM)

that creates a database of QR codes with their

respective positions. When HMD’s cameras de-

tect a QR code in the physical space via the QR

code manager, its value is compared with those in

the AWM’s database. If the value corresponds to

one of the QR in the database, the positional data

of the physical QR are used to align the digital

twin’s 3d mesh to the physical world by match-

ing the virtual QR code’s position with the once

read by the QR code manager. Consequently, the

application utilizes the ID and spatial data of the

2www.unity.com

QR codes to determine the user’s position in the

warehouse and provide them with the relevant in-

formation.

Moreover, as long as the worker is within read-

distance of a QR code, the system is capable of

providing accurate navigational assistance to the

user thanks to its wayﬁnding module, which will

calculate the shortest path to the selected desti-

nation and guide the user to it using a virtual

line drawn on the ground (Fig. 3). All the inter-

actions between the user and the AWM rely on

the AR interactive menu. This menu allows users

to interact with the inventory item, input data,

and manage the navigation.

As each QR code is attached to a shelving loca-

tion, the AWM can use the value of each QR code

to access the warehouse database and retrieve in-

formation about the stored items on the nearby

shelves. This information is then passed to the

storage inspection module, which displays it to

the operator and enables them to interact with it

using an intuitive menu. The menu is composed

of two main parts: a selection grid is overlaid to

the shelving, enabling the user to choose the de-

sired location by pointing to the grid cell they de-

sire. After the selection, an inspection menu pops

up near the worker, facilitating content inspection

and updates (Fig. 2). This includes the ability

to view detailed information about the selected

item, update its status, or perform any necessary

actions related to the item. With this implemen-

tation, fewer QR codes are needed compared to

other solutions found in the literature. For exam-

ple, [4] marked each location on the shelves with

a unique QR code that opens to more potential

failure points and heavier computational require-

ments. Additionally, relying on a smaller set of

QR codes results in a simpler and more stream-

lined maintenance process.

Figure 2: The storage inspection tool: in the fore-

ground, the interaction menu; in the background,

the shelves’ selection grid

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT

DOI: 10.37394/232015.2024.20.42

Leonardo Vezzani, Federica Moro,

Francesco Strada, Federico Pieri, Andrea Bottino

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

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Volume 20, 2024

Figure 3: The wayﬁnding tool: in the fore-

ground, the destination selection menu; in the

background, the line indicating the way to the

operator

2.3 Results

The implemented application meets all high-

lighted requirements. The reduced number of QR

codes allows the application to run smoothly on

a Hololens 2 with a stable frame rate. Using

only one QR code per shelving reduces the com-

putational demand for the tracking service and

prevents potential conﬂicts between diﬀerent QR

codes while the user is near a shelving. Addition-

ally, thanks to the ease of installation and removal

of QR codes, the system can be quickly updated

without requiring signiﬁcant modiﬁcations to the

application since it is only necessary to provide

the AWM with the position of the added QR code

and access to the corresponding information in

the warehouse database. Furthermore, since the

application relies on a digital twin that only re-

quires geometrical information about the building

and the QR code’s position, it facilitates seamless

replication of any physical warehouse updates in

the digital twin, making the application adapt-

able to various client needs. Finally, since the

application depends on the user’s position to pro-

vide them with shelving data, it implicitly pre-

vents the operator from selecting and operating

on the wrong shelving, eliminating the possibility

of selection errors during inspection.

3 Limitations & Future Works

Early testing of this application highlighted the

need for warehouse operators to move across dif-

ferent ﬂoors while working. When using AR

HMDs, the onboard sensors may have diﬃculty

tracking the user’s position when changing ﬂoors,

especially when entering an elevator. Addition-

ally, users may face issues viewing AR visual cues

while using stairs or ramps. To tackle this chal-

lenge, we have chosen to pause the navigation

when users encounter these architectural features

and instead provide them with textual directions

to move to the correct ﬂoor. Once they reach the

new ﬂoor, users are required to scan the QR code

conveniently placed in their arrival area to resume

navigation. Moreover, another limitation that we

encountered was that the user interface overlaid

on the shelving should adapt to each shelving di-

mension as they may vary widely even within the

same warehouse. To address this, future versions

should implement a dynamic interface that ad-

justs its dimensions based on the shelving data

provided by the AWM. This means that by up-

dating the shelving data in the database, the cor-

responding interface should automatically adapt

its dimensions accordingly.

This application constitutes the basis for new

features that can assist warehouse operations in

many tasks. One of the most interesting features

is the possibility of assisting workers while con-

ducting quality assurance tests or executing order

picking. Providing operators with comprehensive

instructions and verifying their correct execution

could reduce the time needed for such operations

and improve performance.

4 Conclusions

Our paper introduces an augmented reality (AR)

application speciﬁcally created to improve the

productivity and eﬃciency of warehouse work-

ers. The application utilizes a marker-based ap-

proach, resulting in a lightweight and portable

system that allows workers to manage inventory

while navigating the warehouse seamlessly. Fur-

thermore, the system oﬀers real-time wayﬁnding

assistance to optimize operations. This tool will

enable workers to be more eﬀective and opti-

mize their work, resulting in more eﬃcient time

management and potentially fewer errors. Our

marker-based solution is highly adaptable to var-

ious customer needs and warehouse environments.

In the future, we plan to enhance the application

by incorporating additional functionalities, such

as control process features, to optimize warehouse

operations further.

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5 Acknowledgments

This publication is part of the project PNRR-

NGEU which has received funding from the

MUR-DM352/2022.

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DOI: 10.37394/232015.2024.20.42

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Francesco Strada, Federico Pieri, Andrea Bottino

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientiﬁc Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The concept and design of the study were jointly

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plication was designed and developed by LV and

FM. LV, FS, and AB prepared the ﬁrst draft of

the manuscript. All authors commented on pre-

vious versions of the manuscript and read and ap-

proved the ﬁnal manuscript.

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Scientiﬁc Article or Scientiﬁc Article Itself

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The authors have no conﬂicts of interest to

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article.

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Francesco Strada, Federico Pieri, Andrea Bottino

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

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