Development of a Pre-Diagnosis Procedure for the Evaluation of Indoor

Radon Potential in Buildings

SIMONA MANCINI, MICHELE GUIDA

Department of Information and Electric Engineering and Applied Mathematics,

Amb.ra. Lab-Laboratory of Ambients and Radiations,

University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, I-84084 Fisciano,

ITALY

Abstract: - Indoor radon accumulation is considered the main source of human exposure to ionizing radiation.

Depending on the average radon level, indoor long-term exposure can significantly increase the risk of lung

cancer onset. The publication of international regulations on the protection of human health the exposure of

ionizing radiation, defining threshold values over whom health consequences for occupants could be expected,

led to the control and testing of radon levels in workplaces and premises using multiple techniques and

approaches. In particular, since the main source of radon is soil, many efforts have been done for the redaction

of maps of the geogenic potential risk, as well as the definition of proper measurement standards and

techniques for indoor monitoring. Radon maps, based on geology and measurements of radon and/ or the

natural radioactive content in the soil, constitute an evaluable tool for decision-making authorities in radon

policies giving the possibility to characterize areas for radon risk where indoor radon measurements are not

available. But, of course, they are not completely descriptive of the potential risk, so indoor monitoring in

buildings is also required. The correct design of an indoor monitoring campaign is a crucial topic.. Scientific

literature has largely demonstrated that many site-specific features influence the accumulation process, as well

as most building materials represent a significant source, after the soil. The preliminary complete investigation

in buildings should be properly defined since radiation safety in a situation of radon exposure completely

ensured during the building's construction and maintenance phases as well as during the selling/rental ones. So,

the aim of this work is to put the basis for the development of a pre-diagnosis procedure as a tool for the

screening of buildings susceptible to high indoor radon activity concentrations. The work represents a very

early stage of implementation of a qualitative method for the design of a measurement campaign for the indoor

radon assessment. A pre-evaluation selection of the variables that play a leading role in the accumulation

process is presented. A prior survey, based on evidence in scientific literature, was done to identify all relevant

characteristics that most affect indoor radon levels, mainly concerning local geology, building features,

ventilation, and occupancy factors. The selected parameters, classified into levels according to defined

indicators and then combined, allow a more refined sample selection for measurements campaign in the indoor

radon assessment process. Future development will be oriented to the validation of case studies and the

implementation of the procedure in a software environment which will be the first tool available to systematize

and regulate the radon monitoring process for short-term decision-making.

Key-Words: - Radon monitoring, indoor radon , radon, radon in buildings

Received: March 9, 2022. Revised: August 23, 2023. Accepted: September 25, 2023. Available online: October 26, 2023.

1 Introduction

Human exposure to natural background radiation is

an inevitable event since the main sources of

radiation are the cosmic rays and the primordial

radionuclides contained in the earth's crust. The

main contribution of exposure arises from natural

radiation either than from cosmic rays and nuclear

processes. Referring only to the larger contribution,

i.e. ionizing radiation of natural origin, more than

three-quarters of the entire total comes from

radionuclides present in the earth's crust, such as

uranium and thorium whose decay product is radon.

Radon is a radioactive gas, which, under certain

specific conditions, can accumulate in closed rooms

and constitute a serious hazard to human health

because of its well-known carcinogenicity, [1]. For

this reason, the control of indoor radon levels, based

on the measurement of radon activity concentration

(CRn), integrated over a year and expressed in terms

of effective annual dose, D (mSvy-1), is crucial for

the assessment of the radiological risk related to the

inhalation of radon and its progeny, [2].

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Simona Mancini, Michele Guida

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

Volume 20, 2024

Radon exhalation from the ground beneath and

surrounding buildings is generally the main source

of indoor radon, entering buildings through cracks

in the floor, gaps, windows, drains, or spaces around

cables and pipes. In temperate and cold climate

areas, radon easily accumulates in the indoor

environment due to the pressure-driven flow of gas

which arises because buildings are normally under a

slight under pressure compared to pressure under

the building, especially in wintertime when heating

systems are on.

Moreover, some specific building materials can

act as significant sources of radon exposure.

Generally, it happens when they contain high levels

of Radium-226, which decays into radon, and high

porosity, allowing the radon gas to easily escape out

of the material to the external air as, for example, in

lightweight concrete with alum shale,

phosphogypsum, Italian tuff, etc. The use of

material from old uranium tailings (by-products of

uranium mining) as filling under the buildings can

also contribute to significant concentrations of radon

indoors.

Radon in water also can be released into the

indoor air during routine water use such as

showering or laundry but in general, water tends to

not be a significant source of indoor radon than the

soil beneath buildings or construction materials.

Also, indoor/outdoor air exchange has a great

influence on the growth process of concentration

levels since a low air exchange rate with the

atmosphere is responsible for the accumulation

process.

For all these main reasons, indoor radon

concentrations tend to differ among countries and

even individual buildings mainly because of

different climates, construction techniques and

materials, types of ventilation provided, domestic

habits, and soil geology.

Because of the complexity of this issue, which

requires border synergies in terms of different

competencies for the management and monitoring

of radon assessment, radiation safety in a situation

of radon exposure should be conceived in line with

buildings codes and ensured in the context of

controlling natural radioactivity during the buildings

design, construction, and maintenance phases as

well as during the selling/rental phases. In this last

regard, the tasks of optimization of protection

against radon could be solved also in line with other

building construction issues such as energy

efficiency, as largely explained in, [3].

All this assumed the development of a systematic

approach to define a qualitative pre-diagnosis

method for the design of the measurements

campaign and the evaluation of indoor radon

potential in the building could fill the gap in the

short-term monitoring process related to the

construction, maintenance, retrofit and selling/rental

phase of a building.

It has been conceived as a tool for authorities to

identify buildings where the potential risks could be

high and for professionals to properly design

monitoring campaigns. In particular, the proposed

procedure turns out very useful for the preliminary

evaluation of indoor radon concentrations when

annual measurements cannot be performed. Indeed,

according to international legislation radon activity

concentration should be measured integrated over a

year, but during the design, construction, and

maintenance of a building is not feasible to wait for

3 months or 1 year. Moreover, people buying their

premises could be interested in being informed

about the presence of this hazard by requesting fast

preliminary investigations.

So, the main objective of this work is to propose

a methodology for the assessment of the radon

potential and design of building monitoring based

on the building analysis. A set of selected

influencing variables have been selected,

systematized, and categorized after a prior survey,

based on evidence in scientific literature. Then, they

have been classified in levels, from low to very high

with also a color scale descriptor assigned, and then

incorporate into a complete monitoring protocol that

starts from the acquisition of the site information to

the elaboration of the radon preliminary

measurements results.

The pre-diagnosis approach constitutes a ‘pilot’

assessment to evaluate the indoor radon potential of

a certain site taking into account the local geology,

the ventilation and occupancy factor, and the

building’s features. By means of this approach, a

meaningful and efficient experimental campaign can

be implemented without employing unnecessary

time and resources because environments with high

radon indoor potential can be easily identified.

Indeed the common approach, in this absence of a

defined procedure, is based only on the monitoring

of buildings and environments required by law

without considering specific cases or all other

important features that govern the phenomena.

The work represents a very early stage of

implementation of a comprehensive qualitative

procedure for the design of a measurement

campaign for the indoor radon assessment. It comes

from the idea to introduce a sort of qualitative

performance indicator to support the decision-

making process in the management of an initial

monitoring. The decision-maker, considering the

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Simona Mancini, Michele Guida

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Volume 20, 2024

several options, will be in this way equipped to

properly analyze the status quo and to predict the

outcomes of future actions.

Future development will be oriented to the

application of case studies of the procedure in order

to refine the methodology and the implementation

of the procedure in a software environment

representing the results of the measurement

campaign surveys on the building 3D model.

2 Problem Formulation

The mapping and monitoring of indoor radon in

private and public buildings is mandatory in many

countries all over the world, [4]. One of the main

approaches for preliminary investigations aimed to

identify susceptible areas is a statistical analysis

based on soil or indoor measurements generally

performed with passive systems, some of which are

easily manipulated. Basically, according to many

international regulations, only environments at

underground and ground levels have to be

investigated. But, scientific literature has

demonstrated that also work and living spaces on

upper floors are susceptible to high indoor radon

concentration. It happens when some defined

features, related to the building material used and

the construction technique and architectural plant,

occur. For this reason, preliminary inspections

should be extended, in some particular cases, also to

environments on different floors. Advances in

scientific literature and research about the

development of more accurate technologies for

radon monitoring should be applied to support

authorities and professionals in improving the

protection of population health by using the most

recent findings and technologies. In this context, a

systematic approach aimed to better identify all the

buildings and indoor environments susceptible to

indoor radon concentration by using an active

monitoring system is proposed. The strategy is

aimed to allow authorities and professionals to

improve the performance of investigations and

increase the level of protection of the population’s

health. The strategy gives well-defined criteria for

the design of the monitoring campaign, avoiding

economic loss with a no-sense monitoring

measurements campaign based on the elaboration of

data with no clear and complete information.

2.1 Methodology

To set up a strategy, criteria for structural and

geological features should be defined, first.

Regarding the technologies to adopt for preliminary

investigations the short-term radon concentration

measurements, performed according to defined

experimental protocols, fit for the purposes thanks

to the fast and quite accurate response. Many

instruments of this kind, available on the market,

can be used for monitoring with fast responses.

Instead, regarding the selection criteria a more wide

description is necessary and in the following

subsections described.

Identification of factors affecting indoor radon

concentration has been the crucial idea of many

research studies and the results presented in

scientific literature demonstrate that the main factors

are: geology, building materials, building features,

and ventilation (related, in particular, to a number of

floor and type of windows, foundations). For

example in, [5], a deep review gathering systematic

information collected from previous experimental

campaigns on different types of buildings:

residential, school, kindergarten, administrative

offices, historical buildings, etc. was carried out

highlighting the importance of the above-mentioned

factors above di other ones.

Building features and materials used are

strongly related to the period of the building

construction. So this data appears to be significant

for easily identifying indoor CRn. For example, in

buildings built in the period after 1960 (the

‘concrete age’), lower radon concentrations are

easier to find in comparison to buildings built in the

previous periods because of the presence of aerated

foundations, building materials with low natural

radioactive contents and improvements in the indoor

natural ventilation thanks to regulations defining the

minimum windows area and ceiling height

according to the room size and use, respectively.

Moreover, the difference in CR originates also from

the building aging since new buildings are

nonporous and crack-free in comparison to the old

buildings. The above-cited findings were similarly

obtained in many different studies, [6], [7], [8], [9],

[10].

On this basis inclusion and exclusion criteria

determining which environment or building of the

target group can or cannot be included in the

preliminary investigations can be outlined. Inclusion

criteria comprise the characteristics or attributes that

buildings must have in order to be included in the

study. Exclusion criteria comprise characteristics

used to identify what should not be included in a

study (for example environment where there is no

hazard or exposure).

Each criterion defining an inclusion feature can

be quantified through levels as follows.

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Table 1. Descriptors of the radon potential

Level

low

medium

high

very high

2.1.1 Criteria n.1: Radon Potential from Soil

Characterization of soil gas radon in an environment

based on superficial geology is a useful tool for

determining indoor radon concentration. In line with

the national action plan recommendations of the

International Commission on Radiological

Protection, [11], suggesting the use of radon maps

for the optimization of the search of homes or areas

with high radon concentration, in many areas radon

soil maps are available, [12], [13]. When priority

areas are already defined by the national guidelines,

geographic areas where building monitoring is

mandatory are already defined. Alternatively, soil

gas radon measurement on site is a useful tool for

the assessment of environmental radon potential and

for the prediction of potential indoor radon

concentrations in a geographic area, as

demonstrated by many worldwide studies, [5], [12],

[13], [14], [15]. In these cases, Table 1 can be used

in line with values of radon concentrations

measured in the soil.

2.1.2 Criteria n.2: Radon Potential from

Building Material

The second screening criterion is the identification

of the radon potential from building materials. As

demonstrated by many scientific works structural

and decorative materials could be susceptible to

high radon potential, [16], [17], [18], [19]. A list of

hazardous materials used for structural purposes is

defined in, [4]. Also in this case, Table 1 can be

used in line with the values of natural radioactive

content measured according to, [4], or national

legislation.

2.1.3 Criteria n.3: Buildings and Environment

Features

Building-specific factors affect indoor radon

concentrations, [6]. In particular, the type of

foundation and the presence of openings favoring

natural ventilation play a very crucial role in the

radon accumulation dynamics in closed

environments. For example, higher radon

concentrations are revealed in buildings without

basements because, without the physical barrier of

the foundation, radon penetrates into the flat directly

from the soil which is the main source of radon, [7],

[20].

In buildings like schools, hospitals, or public

offices a great number of people, than a

private/residential ones, are exposed. Also, in these

structures, people use to spend many hours per day.

So, according to the use, it is very important to

monitor indoor concentrations in all more

susceptible environments, from underground to

higher floors. Table 2 could be used to classify the

different features of the building and the indoor

environment.

Table 2. Descriptors of the radon potential for

criteria 3

Foundation type

Indirect /direct but aerated

In contact with soil /no aerated

Direct contact with soil

No foundation

Ventilation of the environment

3 or more openings/forced

ventilation systems

2 openings

1 openings

No openings

Destination

Occasional place (b&b, Hotel rooms, museum..)

Public offices

Residential/ working places

Schools/ /hospitals

Use

Occasional (less than 10h in a month)

Services local, kitchens

Bedrooms and offices

Classrooms and rooms of Schools/hospitals

2.2 Monitoring Protocol

The theoretical building’s tendency concerning

indoor radon exposure through the combination of

the above-presented criteria (Figure 1) is crucial to

design a measurement campaign.

In buildings where all 4 criteria have a high

impact (red light), the monitoring should be

extended also to the environment on the upper

floors.

In particular, according to the criteria and

descriptors introduced the monitoring should

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prioritized in buildings presenting no green light or

just one and more than two orange or red.

Fig. 1: Pre-monitoring criteria tables

The monitoring protocol is made up of the following

main steps:

1. identification of the closed spaces to monitor.

2. information measures for people living/working

in it.

3. Performing short-term measurements.

Environment to monitor should be closed for a

minimum of 48 hours, in order to assess the

maximum indoor radon concentrations. In this time

period, it is important to avoid the opening of

windows and doors and the activation of

heating/ventilation systems. This approach,

proposed and validated by the authors also in

previous work, [21], aims to detect the maximum

reachable level of concentration in the room i.e. to

estimate radon ingrowth in the room in low

ventilation conditions, qualitatively.

The complete flow chart of the approach is

reported in Figure 2, instead.

Fig. 2: Flow chart of the total approach

3 Discussion

The geology and phenotype of buildings are crucial

in indoor radon accumulation dynamics.

According to international legislation radon

activity concentration should be measured, on

underground and ground floors, over a year, but in

some cases is not feasible to wait for 3 months or 1

year, [22]. In other cases, the threshold limits can be

overcome also in upper floors. When the building

has been never monitored, to demonstrate the

improvements of a mitigation intervention or to

identify other susceptible environments to monitor,

according to the regulation for the safety in working

environments, short terms measurements performed

with active instruments represent a valid method for

preliminary investigations and outcomes. Of course,

in case of high potential results, it will be

recommended to proceed to a detailed indoor radon

concentration assessment and to implement

remediation measures to reduce radon risk exposure.

The described approach based on the assessment of

the presence of radon sources (soil and building

materials) and environmental design metrics

(buildings features) would like to represent a strong

starting point for:

1. design a measurements campaign for the indoor

radon assessment identifying all the susceptible

environments. Indeed, the approach overcomes the

limits defined by law guaranteeing more protection

to the population by extending the monitoring also

to buildings not identified in radon-prone areas

maps or environments at floors upper than the

ground.

2. ‘phenotyping’ buildings whose features can

determine higher or lower radon CRn

This last point is crucial in the patchy situation. In

Italy, for example, the architectural background is

characterized by an old building heritage, with a

great number of structures built in different times

before the 1900s and1980s.

In this irregular background, it could be very

useful to identify areas where buildings with the

same building features, according to the design of

the age, are concentrated. For example, buildings

before the 1950s according to the Italian

construction tradition are built with structural walls

of natural stones and with direct foundations, often

without aerated basements. Moreover, because of

the stone’s characteristics structures are

characterized by big thick walls and small openings

(doors and windows) and indoor spaces without

widows. According to the above-mentioned criteria,

this phenotype could be more susceptible to high

CRn and should be investigated also in areas where

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radon potential from the soil is not classified as

high.

4 Conclusion

An early stage of implementation of a

comprehensive experimental qualitative procedure

for the design of a measurements campaign for the

indoor radon assessment and for the phenotyping of

the building susceptible to high indoor radon

concentrations has been presented. The procedure

should be intended as an assessment tool based on

radon performance indicators related to different

inclusion criteria.

Firstly, a selection of the variables that play a

leading role in the radon accumulation process was

carried out. Then, once identified all relevant

characteristics that most affect the indoor radon

levels, mainly concerning local geology, building

features, ventilation, and occupancy factors, the

selected parameters were classified into levels,

according to defined indicators, and combined in a

‘pre-monitoring criteria table’ for decision making.

This table constitutes an important tool in the pre-

monitoring decision process which constitute an

important phase in the framework of the global

monitoring protocol presented in Figure 2.

As the approach is at its early stage of

implementation, only the main ‘primary’ criteria

have been included. Of course, future development

will be oriented to the validation of case studies but

also to the inclusion of other secondary criteria and

the implementation of the complete procedure in a

software environment. In particular, the authors are

currently working on the application of the proposed

approach to case studies in Italy that will be

presented in future works.

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The authors equally contributed in the present

research, at all stages from the formulation of the

problem to the final findings and solution.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare

that are relevant to the content of this article.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en

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