Perceived and Actual Fire Safety – Case of Hybrid and Electric Vehicle
Fires in Finland 2015–2023
VESA LINJA-AHO
Independent Electrical Safety Professional,
Espoo,
FINLAND
ORCiD: 0000-0003-1441-8718
Abstract: - As an emerging technology, hybrid and electric vehicles draw media attention and so does their fire
safety. For this article, Finnish national rescue task database (Pronto) was reviewed for electric and hybrid
vehicle fires for years 2015–2023, and the 44 records found were analyzed for the fire behavior and the
successfulness of the rescue operation. Hybrid and electric vehicle fires are both absolutely and relatively rare
compared to conventional vehicle fires. The incident rate for plug-in vehicles has been 0.2–0.9 per 10000
vehicles per year in the 2020s, which is significantly smaller than the rate for all passenger vehicles (4.6). Small
absolute number is due to the small total number of hybrid and electric vehicles. Small relative number of fires
may be due to the age of vehicles. Electrified vehicles can catch fire while plugged in, parked or while driving,
with no significant differences in the incidence of the state of the vehicle. In road accidents, only one vehicle
caught fire after a crash. All electric vehicle fires, even if the lithium-ion traction battery is involved,
successfully extinguished with a branch pipe and traditional firefighting gear, as the rescue staff had been
trained for handling incidents involving electric vehicles. There exists a media bias in reporting battery electric
vehicle fires: of all 5 fires of BEV origin found, 4 have been reported in the media as an electric vehicle fire.
Key-Words: - electric vehicle fire, battery fire, electric vehicle safety, fire rate, incident rate, lithium-ion battery
fire.
Received: September 29, 2023. Revised: November 22, 2023. Accepted: December 19, 2023. Published: December 31, 2023.
1 Introduction
The ignition sources in motor vehicle fires are
similar to those associated with structural fires, such
as electric arcs, mechanical sparks, overloaded
wiring, open flames, and smoking materials. In
addition, there are unique sources such as hot
surfaces in the exhaust system and brakes, [1]. The
variety of car makes and models, manufacturer’s
reluctance to disclose information about the
incidents, and high cost of systematic fire tests
result in a lack of comprehensive information on
vehicle fires, [2]. Electrical fire is the most common
type of fire occurring in automobiles. In some fires,
the evidence is consumed to the point where a
determination of the cause of the fire cannot be
made with any degree of certainty, [3]. If the vehicle
is old and therefore of low value and no arson is
suspected, it is also cost-inefficient to do a closer
(electric) fire investigation.
Battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEV), and conventional (non-
rechargeable) hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) with a
lithium-ion traction battery pose new challenges to
firefighting and rescue personnel, including new
toxic gas emissions and the need for excess use of
water, [4]. In addition, the battery may re-ignite
even days or weeks after the first extinguishment,
[5]. Further research and assessment are needed also
in extinguishing water treatment, [6]. The most
efficient way for extinguishing an electric vehicle is
still being discussed. In addition to the traditional
branch pipe (the normal nozzle attached to the
firefighting hose), there are multiple products in the
market for extinguishing and managing electric
vehicle fires:
A variety of extinguishing containers where
the car is to be placed for or after the
extinguishing.
A water lance to be hammered inside the
battery compartment.
A tool that penetrates the battery casing
underside of the car
A sprinkler tool that is to be slid under the
vehicle
Fire blanket for the vehicle
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In this article, BEVs, PHEVs and HEVs are
referenced as electrified vehicles. Most of the hybrid
(HEV) vehicles contain a nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) battery, which is not prone to thermal
runaway like lithium-ion batteries and requires no
special attention from firefighting staff from the
point of the extinguishing process.
According to the literature, there seems to be no
significant difference in the fire risk between
conventional and electrified vehicles, but as the
majority of self-ignited vehicle fires start in old
vehicles and the majority of electrified vehicles are
rather new, it is difficult to make a fair comparison,
[4], [7], [8]. The small absolute number of vehicles
and incomplete statistics on vehicle fires by traction
power also obstruct making strong conclusions on
fire rate. Recent reports by an insurance company,
[9], and a Swedish safety authority, [10], suggest
that currently, the probability of a BEV starting a
fire is even lower than in vehicles with combustion
engines. Collecting data on vehicle fires varies
nationally, which makes comparing the incident
rates difficult, [11].
When discussing fires of electrified vehicles, a
distinction has to be made between a “normal”
vehicle fire and a traction battery fire. If the battery
is not on fire nor in a thermal runaway state, the fire
can be extinguished just like any conventional
vehicle fire. The ignition of the battery usually
results from internal faults in the battery pack, as the
battery is well protected and tested for external
sources of ignition. For instance, in the massive fire
in Stavanger airport, no electric vehicle battery
packs caught fire, [12]. No signs of battery fires
were found in the interview of the rescue personnel,
nor chemicals associated with damaged batteries
(e.g. lithium) were found in the samples of the
extinguishing wastewater, [13]. The possible reason
is that the battery is located in the underbody of the
vehicle and therefore not prone to external heat. The
type test for the vehicle traction batteries also
demands them to tolerate direct flame from
underneath for a few minutes, [14].
In Finland (an industrialized country with a 5.5
million population), over 2000 vehicle fires are
recorded annually in the Finnish national rescue task
database Pronto. Of these, ca. 1300 are passenger
cars, vans, and pickups. Compared to 2.7 million
passenger cars, this accounts for 5 fire incidents per
10000 vehicles annually (Table 1).
Table 1. Road Vehicle Fires in Finland 2015–2022
according to the PRONTO DATABASE
Year
Passenger
car
Van or
pickup
Bus
2015
1 303
155
53
2016
1 320
150
57
2017
1 242
146
44
2018
1 296
143
51
2019
1 275
161
48
2020
1 239
148
31
2021
1 214
165
31
2022
1 174
144
40
Fires total
10 063
1212
355
Annual
average
1258
152
44
Vehicles total
(2019)
2 720 307
330 671
12 577
Fires per
10000 vehicles
4.6
4.6
35.3
As modern electric vehicles are rather new
technology on the market, media bias and prejudices
among the public do exist, as does bias caused by
industry and environmental politics, [15]. A fire
incident of an electric car will draw media attention,
which may propagate the bias further.
The goal of this paper, extending the work
presented in [16], is to analyze the accidents and
fires in the Finnish carpool to provide information
on fire likelihood as well as fire behavior and
extinguishing needs in electrified vehicles and
provide comparable information for researchers in
different countries. National accident information
and statistics are usually available in the national
language only and collection and accuracy of
statistics varies from country by country, which
makes comparison difficult, [17]. Unlike structural
choices in buildings and electrical installations, a
certain model of a vehicle is the same or modified in
the slightest, and therefore information on vehicle
fires in one country is globally useful.
As every rescue mission is recorded in the
national Pronto register, the data from the register
provides an opportunity to get an unbiased value for
the incident rate of electric vehicle fires. The
knowledge base on lithium-ion battery fire
chemistry and physics is researched
comprehensively and is expanding fast, but for
incident rate and behavior of actual electric vehicle
fires have not been researched comprehensively.
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2 Methods
In this paper, the national rescue task register Pronto
was searched for vehicle fires and traffic accidents
involving an electrified passenger or heavy vehicle.
Light vehicles such as scooters and e-bikes were
omitted. As the power source of a vehicle involved
in a fire or accident is not recorded in the database
in particular, an extensive keyword search was
performed, including words associated with electric
and hybrid powertrain (electric, hybrid, battery, high
voltage) as well as popular electric and hybrid
vehicle model names. From the search results,
mismatches were pruned off manually.
Content analysis was applied to the incident
records to identify relevant similarities in the chain
of events. All the events identified are presented as
an appendix of this paper.
3 Results
From the database, 46 incidents involving hybrid or
electric vehicles were identified during the years
2015–2023. From the 46 instances, incidents with:
no clear indication of fire or smoke
one incident involving a boat with self-
installed used electric vehicle batteries as
the focus of the study is on-road vehicles
were rejected, resulting in 44 cases. The results are
presented in Table 2, Summary of all the incidents
analyzed is presented as an attachment to the article.
Table 2. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Fires in
National Accident Register in Finland
Year
Fires
total
BEV
fires
(total)
PHEV
HEV
Other
2015
2
0 (614)
0 (1017)
1
(14055)
1 (a
hybrid
bus)
2016
3
0 (844)
0 (2437)
2
(19250)
1 (a
straddle
carrier)
2017
0
0 (1449)
0 (5719)
0
(28519)
2018
3
1 (2404)
1
(13095)
1
(41696)
2019
3
1 (4661)
0
(24704)
2
(58632)
2020
4
0 (9697)
2
(45621)
2
(77357)
2021
6
1 (22921)
1
(76990)
4
(105465)
2022
4
0 (44889)
3
(104039)
1
(131174)
2023
19
6 (83765)
10
(135090)
1
(152338)
2 BEV
buses
3.1 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Fires
Of the 9 BEV passenger vehicle fire incidents
recorded in 2015–2023, 3 happened when the car
was plugged in, 3 while driving and one because of
a drive-out accident. In addition, 2 BEV fires were
the result of a structural fire, of which one was
identified as an arson. Only in one instance in
March 2023, the actual fire started during driving,
[18]. The other two incidents while driving were
identified as a smoke emission from a heat pump
failure of a Tesla Model 3.
Of the 9 incidents, 4 of them involved the fire of
the high voltage battery.
In the first of the BEV fires recorded (October
2018), the car had stopped working on the road and
was towed to the owner’s house to wait for a
delivery to a repair shop. The vehicle (Think City)
was plugged into the mains all the time because the
vehicle had a high-temperature battery (”Zebra”)
and therefore had to be plugged in with no long
breaks. A week after this, the car caught fire. The
owner woke up from a banging noise in the morning
and saw the car on fire and called the emergency
number. According to the Pronto record, the car was
fully destroyed in the fire and therefore the accurate
starting point of the fire was not investigated. As the
car was parked next to a residential house, there was
also a building fire risk. The fire had burned the
painting of the sheet metal covering of wall and
melted the wall sockets on it. The incident was
noticed shortly in the local newspaper, [19].
The second fire on BEV took place in March
2019. At 5:23 in the morning, a security guard
noticed that smoke was coming out from an electric
vehicle (Hyundai Kona Electric), which was parked
in front of a car dealership and plugged in. The
guard called the emergency number and unplugged
the car. When the first unit arrived at the scene at
5:28, there was a lot of smoke coming out from
under the car. A couple of minutes after the arrival
of the rescue unit, the gases burst in flames.
The burning car was winched away from the
building and the other cars, and the fire was
extinguished with water. The representative of the
company arrived, and the last rescue unit left the
scene at 6:45. The total amount of used water was
recorded to be 1 m3.
Almost immediately after that (6:50), the
company representative noticed the car had re-
ignited and called the emergency number. The fire
was put out, and the car re-ignited again. The total
water consumption on these two re-ignitions was
recorded to be 10 m3.
There does exist a professional magazine report
of the case, discussing this particular case and the
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extinguishing of electric vehicles in general, [20].
According to the article, one specific problem is the
lack of clear and brief (“fitting on a single A4
paper”) instructions for fire personnel on how to
deal with electric vehicle fires. There have been
some training events and courses on the subject in
Finland, but no systematic training for all fire
personnel, and the situation varies by fire
department. The incident was also noticed in local
media, [21].
In the following years, there were no BEV fires
recorded in Finland, until the first half of the year
2023. In March 2023, seven units of fire engines
were dispatched to a vehicle fire in Lohja, [22].
According to the Pronto record, the fire was
probably started from the electrical box in the
building, not from the car, which suffered only
minor damages and was in traffic. Interestingly, in
the news the car was not mentioned to be an electric
one, making this the only BEV fire incident that was
not reported as an electric vehicle fire. This is
remarkable because normal vehicle fire does not
lead to dispatching seven units of fire engines, but
usually one or two.
Later in March, a BEV caught fire while
driving. The driver heard a boom from the back of
the car, then smoke and flames erupted. The fire did
not involve the high-voltage battery but was
probably started by the inverter of the vehicle. In the
media, the fact that the fire did not involve the
battery, was reported, [18].
In June 2023, an incident happened in an
underground parking facility drew a lot of media
attention. A Volkswagen ID. Buzz electric van of a
car-sharing company, was reported exploding in the
parking hall on Saturday morning, [23]. In the news
photographs, the car looked like something had
exploded inside the vehicle. No actual fire was
observed, and the battery of the car looked
undamaged. The car was transported to the fire
station to wait for further investigations. After being
transported from the fire station to an authorized
service shop for further investigations on Tuesday,
the traction battery caught fire and burned totally,
[24]. Because such an incident is very uncommon, a
thorough investigation with eyewitness interviews
and analysis of all photographs of the vehicle and its
parts was carried out, [25]. According to the
investigation, some of the cells of the high-voltage
battery have vented flammable gases, which formed
a combustible mixture inside the vehicle and
deflagrated. The resulting blast triggered the
sprinkler in the parking garage. The thermal
reactions in the battery did not spread as a full-scale
battery fire in the parking hall and from outside, the
battery looked intact. However, the damaged battery
ignited three days later in the yard of the repair
shop. A plausible reason for the incident is an
internal fault in a battery cell.
The only accident-related BEV fire happened in
July 2023 in Salo: the driver drove out of the road in
a bend with a Nissan Leaf BEV. The vehicle fell 5
meters and the rocks on the ground damaged the
battery and ignited it. The driver and passenger
managed to leave the car before it ignited. The
vehicle burned completely. The bottom of the
vehicle was immersed in water to prevent re-
ignition during transport. The accident was reported
in the media, [26], [27], but the fact that the vehicle
was electric was not reported.
In addition to the passenger BEVs and ID. Buzz
van fire, two battery electric buses had a fire
incident in 2023. The first one was a battery fire and
the second one was a tire fire resulting from an
overheated brake assembly, having possibly no
causal relation to the power source of the bus. In
passenger vehicles, brake problems caused by not
using the mechanical brakes are a recognized issue,
but not in the sense of fire safety, [28]. Only the first
fire, involving battery modules, was reported in the
media, [29].
Of the 5 actual fires of BEV origin, all were
reported by the Finnish media. One notable
perception is that in the incident where the car
drifted off the road, fell 5 meters and the traction
battery was ignited, the fact that the car was electric,
was not reported. In all four other news, the
drivetrain type was mentioned. Commonly, electric
vehicle fires to gain attention and attract readers and
social media discussion, which in turn attracts more
visitors, which may lower the threshold for
reporting all fires and accidents involving an electric
vehicle, [30], [31]. The accident news is commonly
based on eyewitness tips and news announcements
of the authorities. As the accident happened in a
rural area and the authorities did not disclose that
the vehicle was electric, it was reported as an
accident and a vehicle fire in the media.
All the battery electric vehicle fires except the bus
tire fire, Nissan Leaf drive-out accident, and the
building fires which only damaged the BEVs, were
reported in the media as EV fires.
3.2 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
Fires and Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
Fires
Compared to BEVs, PHEVs and HEVs have smaller
batteries, and therefore they can be considered more
easily extinguishable than BEVs with large
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batteries. In addition, most HEVs have a NiMH
battery, which is not prone to thermal runaway.
Of the 17 PHEV fire incidents analyzed, 9 of
them took place while driving and 3 while plugged.
Four caught-fire while parked and one perished in a
farm building fire together with three other cars.
Of the 16 incidents of PHEV origin, one was an
incident where only smoke under the hood was
detected, but the fire personnel found no sign of
ignition in the engine compartment. The only hot
spot in the IR camera was the exhaust manifold.
Therefore, the number of actual PHEV fires totals to
15.
Of the 14 HEV fires, 7 happened while driving
and 7 when parked (of which one occurred
immediately after driving). In one of the parked fire
instances, the fire started from a mains-powered
engine pre-heater, and one from misuse: the owner
was trying to de-ice the frozen windscreen washer
tank with an electric heater left unsupervised. No
HEV incident was directly accident-related, but in
one instance the vehicle had been driven off the
road earlier.
In the first recorded plug-in-hybrid passenger
vehicle fire (July 2018), a Volvo S90 T8 hybrid
began to emit smoke while being charged at home.
The neighbor of the owner noticed the smoke at
midnight and called the emergency number and the
owner de-energized the charger. The firefighters
chose to drill two holes in the traction battery
compartment to get the water inside the battery.
3500-4000 liters of water was used. The car was
transported to a salvage yard, escorted by a
firefighting unit. The charger and charging cable
remained intact and neither the RCD nor the circuit
breaker was tripped during the incident. The fire
was noticed briefly in the local newspaper, [32].
The PHEV incident which drew large media
attention was an incident where a Range Rover with
a family with children inside caught fire while
driving in May 2023 in Mikkeli. The battery ignited
spontaneously while driving. According to the
driver, the heating of the vehicle was suddenly
disabled, then the power output of the vehicle
ceased and white smoke started to emit from the
location of the traction battery, [33]. The family was
able to get out of the car, and the car burned totally,
[34].
In a structural fire in May 2023 in Kouvola, a
Mercedes-Benz 250E PHEV was being charged in
an old cattle shed used as storage room, [35].
According to the fire investigation result inquired
from the local police, the probable reason for the
fire was either the internal charger of the vehicle,
charging station or the wiring, but no doubtless
result was obtained in the fire investigation.
3.3 Incident Rate for Fires of Electrified
Road Vehicles
The number of fires per 10000 vehicles is presented
in Table 3. As the number of these vehicles has
increased steeply, the number of fires is compared
with the average of the number of vehicles at the
beginning of the year and the end of the year.
The total number of electric vehicle-related fire
incidents per 10000 vehicles per annum is 0–1.1 for
HEVs and PHEVs and 0–5.2 for BEVs. For BEVs,
HEVs and PHEVs the incident rate is significantly
smaller than the average for all passenger vehicles
(Table 1). The young age of electrified vehicles
probably biases the comparison, as the aging of the
vehicles increases the fire risk, [8]. For years 2018
and 2019 the incident rate is non-comparable, as the
small number of BEVs causes the incident rate to
jump up with a single incident occurring. In 2020,
the incident rate has been under 1/10000 for all
electrified powertrains.
It is worth noting that not all incidents logged
are actual fires with flames and damage, but for
every incident where there has been smoke and the
fire brigade has had a mission, the incident is logged
in Pronto. As the same applies to all vehicle fires
logged in Pronto, the figures are comparable
between all vehicles and electrified vehicles.
Table 3. Incidents per 10000 BEVs, PHEVs and
HEVs. The Absolute Number of Incidents is
Presented in Parentheses
Year
BEV
PHEV
HEV
2015
0
0
0.8 (1)
2016
0
0
0.6 (2)
2017
0
0
0
2018
5.2 (1)
1.1 (1)
0.3 (1)
2019
2.8 (1)
0
0.4 (2)
2020
0
0.6 (2)
0.3 (2)
2021
0.6 (1)
0.2 (1)
0.4 (4)
2022
0
0.3 (3)
0.1 (1)
2023
0.9 (6)
0.8 (10)
0.1 (1)
Arsons are rare in Finland, as are felonies
overall, [36]. The most common reason recorded for
vehicle fires in Finland is technical fault (Table 4).
Of fires caused by human action (Table 5), 70 % are
deliberate, totaling in 10 %.
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Table 4. Causes of All Vehicle Fires 2015–2022
Cause
Technical fault
66 %
Human action
15 %
Could not be assessed
14 %
Other reason
4 %
Flammable substance
1 %
Natural phenomenon
2.4 ‰
Animal
0.6 ‰
Table 5. Vehicle Fires, when Recorded Caused by
Human Action 2015–2022.
Cause
Deliberate
68 %
Accidental
12 %
Act of negligence
14 %
Could not be assessed
5 %
None of the fires caused casualties, nor no
electrified vehicle catch fire on repair shop and only
one vehicle ignited in a crash. However, in one of
the incidents where a HEV caught fire while
driving, the vehicle had been driven off the road on
the previous day.
In almost of all the incidents, the rescue
personnel knew how to de-energize the vehicle and
extinguish the fire if needed. In one incident in
2016, where the lithium-ion battery of a straddle
carrier caught fire, the rescue personnel thought
incorrectly that a lithium-based battery fire could
not be put out with water and used CO2 instead.
A persistent misconception is that submerging is
the only way to put off an electric vehicle battery
fire. All the vehicle fires studied were extinguished
with a traditional branch pipe. In three instances, the
vehicle was submerged after being extinguished, to
prevent re-ignition. The average amount of water
needed to put out the studied fires is computed in
Table 6. Incidents that have involved a structural
fire or multiple vehicles have been omitted.
Extinguishing and aftercooling a BEV requires
twice fold amount of water compared to PHEVs and
HEVs.
Table 6. The Average Amount of Water used by
Vehicle Class
Vehicle
BEV
4.1 m3
PHEV
1.8 m3
HEV
1.7 m3
4 Conclusions
Battery electric vehicles with large lithium-ion
batteries require a large amount of water to be put
out efficiently: whereas a normal vehicle fire can be
suppressed with some hundreds of liters of water or
foam, an EV fire, especially the aftercooling of the
battery to prevent re-ignition, can require 10000
liters or even more water. Additionally, compared to
conventional vehicle fires, there is always a risk for
re-ignition.
Electric vehicles with large lithium-ion batteries
are relatively new technology and no data is
available on how the cars perform when they reach
the age of 15–20 years. The average life for a
scrapping passenger car in Finland is 22 years, [37]
and the average age of the carpool in Finland is
13 years, [38] and both have been gradually
increasing. The aging pool of electric and hybrid
cars might cause a fire risk to be mitigated.
From the records analyzed in this article, no
new threats compared to previous literature are
recognized. The probability of a vehicle fire incident
is low and ignition of the vehicle in crash accidents
is rare.
One limitation of this study is the reliability of
the Pronto register. The accuracy and
comprehensiveness of the records depend on many
factors, for instance, as the annual rescue mission
ratio rises, the quality of the reporting process
decreases, [39]. There might be instances where an
electrified vehicle has caught fire, but the fact that
the vehicle is electrified is not recorded in Pronto.
However, taking the bias towards new technology
into account, it is unlikely that severe fires would
not have been recorded. There is no multi-step
verification for entries in Pronto database and small
errors are possible. For instance, the vehicle model
and make are not always recorded or are
misrecorded. For instance, a vehicle fire in May
2023 in Helsinki, was described as a “mild hybrid
vehicle” and the model was recorded to be Volvo
V60. As the Volvo V60 is not a mild hybrid vehicle,
a request for information was made to the vehicle
register, which revealed the vehicle to be a Volvo
S60 PHEV.
One significant finding is the media bias for
reporting electric vehicle fires. The bias has been
speculated in media and social media but has not
been studied quantitatively. The fact that 4 of 5
actual electric vehicle fires have been reported in the
media, mentioning that they are electric vehicle
fires, gives strong evidence that media bias toward
electric vehicle fires does exist. Typically vehicle
fires are not reported in the news unless the place or
consequences of the fire are significant, as there are
about 1300 rescue missions related to vehicle fires
yearly.
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5 Discussion and Further Research
Bias towards new technology may lead to
unnecessary cautiousness, and therefore scholarly
research especially comparing traditional and
electrified vehicles is needed. For instance, as
lithium-ion batteries are known to release toxic
gases, [4], the toxicity of fire-extinguishing water
has been suspected, and claimed that the water
should be collected and treated, [40]. However,
when compared in parallel, extinguishing
wastewater from a BEV can be even less toxic than
water from a vehicle with a combustion engine,
[41]. Research-based decision-making should also
be encouraged with extinguishing methods and
tools: for instance, fire blankets are marketed for EV
firefighting, but if the battery is involved in the fire,
the blanket does not suppress the battery fire
successfully, [42], although they may control the
spread of fire in early stages, [43]. Incorrect
perceptions of fire risks of electrified vehicles can
lead to bad decision-making, [44].
The scholarly knowledge base on electric
vehicle fires is at times well-developed and
continuously improving further. However, the
knowledge and practices should be communicated
to the field more efficiently. The rescue and fire
staff need clear and brief instructions. A good
example of simple instructions is from the United
States, in SAE standard J2990:2019 Hybrid and EV
First and Second Responder Recommended Practice
(Figure 1), [45].
Fig. 1: SAE instructions for first and second
responders, [45]
The need for excess use of water and the
probable re-ignition are the main distinctive factors
when compared to regular vehicle fires. The re-
ignition possibility is a challenge especially in
underground parking garage fires, while the car
should be safely transported out before possible re-
ignition, to minimize the smoke emissions in closed
space. This is a challenge, especially in garages
which are too small to be accessed with a flatbed
tow truck.
One risk which may arise from the
electrification of vehicles is the fire risk from
electrical installations of the buildings. Charging
electric vehicles causes a novel long-term,
repetitive, high-current, and year-round load for
domestic electrical installations. In Sweden, at least
one building fire has happened due to using a
regular wall socket and a timer between the
charging cable, [46]. It is possible that even if the
charging cable plug was equipped with a
temperature sensor, the sensor was unable to react
properly to the heat from defective contact inside
the timer or the wall plug. In Finland, one fire from
the electrical installation of a vehicle charger, [47],
and one near-miss incident, [48], have been
documented. In the near-miss incident, charging
with 16 A single-phase charger resulted in the smell
of burning from the main board in a wooden house
built in 1962. The screwed connections of the
master switch had probably loosened and oxidized
during the years, which resulted in overheating. In
the fire incident, a faulty connection inside a
junction box caused a storage building fire when
charging an electric vehicle.
As the carpool ages, further research is needed
to assess the fire risk of aging electrified vehicles as
well as map possible incidents from the electric
vehicle charging infrastructure.
The need and status of training of firefighting
personnel in Finland is also an area that needs
further research. Almost all incidents have been
handled efficiently, except for one misconception
for not using water but CO2, and the PHEV incident
in which the vehicle re-ignited not due to thermal
runaway but the reason that the electrical system
had not been deactivated properly. In a survey
conducted in the United States, more than 40% of
first responders reported that they have never
received EV safety training, [49]. The situation
could be better in Finland but should be assessed.
Especially small rural fire departments and
volunteer-based fire brigades may not have received
any training on electric vehicles.
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.119
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E-ISSN: 2224-3496
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Volume 19, 2023
References:
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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
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Volume 19, 2023
sahkoauto-paloi-lopella-palomestari-kertoo-
miksi-paikalle-lahdettiin-perati-viiden-
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kolmesti – akkupalo on arvaamaton ja vaikea
sammuttaa),” Pelastustieto, Jun. 28, 2019,
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(Accessed Date: December 13, 2020).
[22] “A car burned in a carport in Lohja – seven
units dispatched (Auto paloi katoksessa
Lohjalla – seitsemän riensi hätiin),” Länsi-
Uusimaa, Mar. 24, 2023, [Online].
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uusimaa.fi/paikalliset/5813702 (Accessed
Date: September 1, 2023).
[23] Lauri Rautavuori, “An electric vehicle
exploded while charging in Lahti underground
parking facility (Latauksessa ollut sähköauto
räjähti Lahden toriparkissa),” Yle Uutiset, Jun.
03, 2023, [Online]. https://yle.fi/a/74-
20035023 (Accessed Date: September 1,
2023).
[24] Sini Ojanperä, “The electric vehicle which
exploded in parking house on Saturday was
now re-ignited spontaneously – see the video
(Parkkihallissa lauantaina räjähtänyt
sähköauto syttyi nyt liekkeihin autoliikkeen
pihassa – katso video),” Yle Uutiset, Jun. 06,
2023, [Online]. https://yle.fi/a/74-20035416
(Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[25] Iiro Wennberg, “Investigation report on Lahti
Volkswagen ID. Buzz electric van explosion
on 2023-06-03 in Lahti (Onnettomuusraportti
3.6.2023 Lahdessa räjähtäneestä Volkswagen
ID Buzz täyssähköpakettiautosta (draft
19.8.2023)),” Aug. 2023.
[26] “A passenger car drove out of road on
Arpalahdentie in Salo – the car dashed in
steep slope and ignited (Henkilöauto ulos
tieltä Arpalahdentiellä Salossa - SSS: Auto
syöksyi jyrkähköä rinnettä alas ja syttyi
palamaan)”, [Online].
https://viranomaisuutiset.fi/henkiloauto-ulos-
tielta-arpalahdentiella-salossa-sss-auto-
syoksyi-jyrkahkoa-rinnetta-alas-ja-syttyi-
palamaan/ (Accessed Date: January 3, 2024).
[27] S. S. Sanomat, “A passenger car dashed out of
the road on steep slope and caught fire
(Henkilöauto syöksyi Suomusjärvellä jyrkkää
rinnettä alas ja syttyi palamaan),” SSS.fi, Jul.
27, 2023, [Online].
https://www.sss.fi/2023/07/henkiloauto-
syoksyi-suomusjarvella-jyrkkaa-rinnetta-alas-
ja-syttyi-palamaan/ (Accessed Date: January
3, 2024).
[28] “Brake Problems With Electric Vehicles And
How To Avoid Them,” Autoguide.com,
[Online]. https://www.autoguide.com/auto-
news/2022/07/brake-problems-with-electric-
vehicles-and-how-to-avoid-them.html
(Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[29] Sini Ojanperä, “When the firefighters arrived,
two-meter flames were erupting from the
behind of an electric bus – the rescue staff
now face a new hazard (Kun palokunta
saapui, kaksimetriset lieskat löivät
sähköbussin perästä – pelastajat ovat nyt
uuden vaaran edessä),” Yle Uutiset, Feb. 06,
2023, [Online]. https://yle.fi/a/74-20016265
(Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[30] S. Evans, “Factcheck: 21 misleading myths
about electric vehicles,” Carbon Brief,
[Online].
https://www.carbonbrief.org/factcheck-21-
misleading-myths-about-electric-vehicles/
(Accessed Date: January 3, 2024).
[31] B. Rundle, “Fake News! Dispelling Myths
about Electric Vehicles,” Hydra EVC,
[Online]. https://hydraev.co.uk/fake-news-
dispelling-myths-about-electric-vehicles/
(Accessed Date: January 3, 2024).
[32] S. Rautanen, “A hybrid vehicle caught fire
while charging in Ylöjärvi on Saturday night
– was damaged beyond repair (Latauksessa
ollut hybridiauto paloi Ylöjärvellä
lauantaiyönä – vaurioitui ajokelvottomaksi),”
Aamulehti, [Online].
https://www.aamulehti.fi/uutiset/art-
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Volume 19, 2023
2000007308013.html (Accessed Date:
December 13, 2020).
[33] “A family with children was closely saved
from a hybrid vehicle fire: ‘There were
ingredients of a catastrophe in the
air’(Lapsiperhe pelastui hybridiauton palosta
täpärästi: ‘Oli todelliset katastrofin ainekset
ilmassa’),” Yle Uutiset, https://yle.fi/a/74-
20034376 (Accessed Date: June 1, 2023).
[34] “The police published a bleak picture on
hidden risk of hybrid vehicles – the driver
exited the burning car (Poliisilta karu kuva
hybridiautojen piilevästä riskistä – kuljettaja
poistui palavasta autosta),” mtvuutiset.fi,
[Online].
https://www.mtvuutiset.fi/artikkeli/poliisilta-
pysayttava-kuva-hybridiautojen-piilevasta-
riskista/8701080 (Accessed Date: January 3,
2024).
[35] J. Tenovirta, “Just one more minute and
everything would have been lost – Helineva
family living in Utti were surprised of two
things when they faced an accident in a
Saturday night (Vielä minuutti ja kaikki olisi
mennyt – Utissa asuvat Helinevat yllättyivät
kahdesta asiasta, kun perhettä kohtasi
onnettomuus kesken lauantai-illan),”
Kouvolan Sanomat, [Online].
https://www.kouvolansanomat.fi/paikalliset/6
437405 (Accessed Date: January 13, 2024).
[36] Statistics Finland, “Finland among the best in
the world”, [Online].
https://www.stat.fi/tup/satavuotias-
suomi/suomi-maailman-karjessa_en.html
(Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[37] Autoalan Tiedotuskeskus, “The average
scrapping age of passenger vehicles
(Henkilöautojen keskimääräinen
romutusikä)”, [Online].
https://www.aut.fi/tilastot/romutustilastoja/he
nkiloautojen_keskimaarainen_romutusika
(Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[38] Autoalan tiedotuskeskus, “The average age of
passenger cars was 12.9 years in 2022
(Henkilöautokannan keski-ikä oli vuonna
2022 noin 12,9 vuotta)”, [Online].
https://www.aut.fi/tilastot/autokannan_kehitys
/autokannan_ikatilastoja/henkiloautokannan_i
kakehitys (Accessed Date: September 1,
2023).
[39] M. Majuri and E. Kokki, The reliability of
PRONTO (PRONTOn luotettavuus). in
Pelastusopiston julkaisu. Pelastusopisto, 2010.
[40] CFPA Europe, “Container puts out
inextinguishable fires in electric cars, cfpa
europe”, [Online]. https://cfpa-e.eu/container-
puts-out-inextinguishable-fires-in-electric-
cars/ (Accessed Date: February 26, 2022).
[41] M. Quant, O. Willstrand, T. Mallin, and J.
Hynynen, “Ecotoxicity Evaluation of Fire-
Extinguishing Water from Large-Scale
Battery and Battery Electric Vehicle Fire
Tests,” Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 57, no. 12,
pp. 4821-4830, Mar. 2023, doi:
10.1021/acs.est.2c08581.
[42] P. Sturm et al., “Fire tests with lithium-ion
battery electric vehicles in road tunnels,” Fire
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2022, doi: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2022.103695.
[43] C. Zhao, W. Hu, D. Meng, W. Mi, X. Wang,
J. Wang “Full-scale experimental study of the
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[44] V. Kethareswaran and S. Moulik,
“Electric Vehicles and the Burning Question:
Reasons, Risks, Ramifications and
Remedies—An Indian Perspective,” Fire
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01453-0.
[45] SAE International, “Hybrid and EV First and
Second Responder Recommended Practice,”
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201907/ (Accessed Date: February 16, 2024).
[46] C. von Schultz, “Here is the electrical fault
behind the unlucky electric vehicle charging
(Här är elfelen bakom den ödesdigra
elbilsladdningen),” Elinstallatören, Oct. 08,
2018, [Online].
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r/2018/oktober/har-ar-elfelen-bakom-den-
odesdigra-elbilsladdningen/ (Accessed Date:
June 19, 2020).
[47] Vesa Linja-aho, “Remember while charging: a
super Schuko socket won’t help if the plug is
second-rate (Muista sähköautoa ladatessa:
Supersukopistorasia ei auta, jos pistotulppa on
sekundaa),” ETN, Feb. 02, 2023, [Online].
https://etn.fi/index.php/13-news/14546-
muista-saehkoeautoa-ladatessa-
supersukopistorasia-ei-auta-jos-pistotulppa-
on-sekundaa (Accessed Date: September 1,
2023).
[48] Vesa Linja-aho, Fire safety of electrical
installations in buildings when charging
electric cars (“Kiinteistöjen sähköasennusten
paloturvallisuus sähköautoja ladattaessa -
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
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E-ISSN: 2224-3496
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Volume 19, 2023
Research.fi.”), [Online].
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76321 (Accessed Date: September 1, 2023).
[49] J. Liu, N. Xu, Y. Shi, T. Barnett, and S. Jones,
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Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2022.106903.
[50] M. Uotila, “The extinguishing crate of the fire
department was needed in Sysmä when a
hybrid car caught fire (Pelastuslaitoksen
sammutuskonttia tarvittiin Sysmässä, kun
hybridiauto syttyi palamaan),” Etelä-Suomen
Sanomat, Apr. 02, 2021, [Online].
https://www.ess.fi/paikalliset/4090951
(Accessed Date: August 31, 2023).
[51] V. Linja-aho, “Electric vehicle battery fires
are very rare (Sähköautojen akkupalot ovat
erittäin harvinaisia),” ETN, [Online].
https://etn.fi/index.php/13-news/13001-
saehkoeautojen-akkupalot-ovat-erittaein-
harvinaisia (Accessed Date: February 13,
2022).
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Volume 19, 2023
APPENDIX
Summary of all Identified Hybrid And Electric Vehicle Fires
Time and
Location
Vehicle
Summary
Extinguishing
method
Water used (m3)
Re-
ignition?
Covered in
media?
August 2015,
Turku
Hybrid bus
Smoke from the air
compressor for
brakes, no flames /
actual fire
N/A
0
N/A
No
November
2015,
Äänekoski
Toyota Auris
(HEV)
Red triangle
warning light on
dashboard and
smoke under the
engine hood. No
flames.
N/A
0
N/A
No
April 2016,
Tampere
An electric
straddle carrier
2-meter-long flames
from the lithium-
ion battery (500
kg).
CO2
0
No
No
October 2016,
Urjala
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
Smoke and
exploding sound
from NiMH battery
while driving.
Powder (no actual
fire, extinguisher
used just in case)
0
No
No
November
2016, Paimio
A passenger car
(HEV)
Owner tried to
defreeze the
windscreen washer
tank with an electric
heater without
supervision, which
started the fire. No
battery fire.
Fire blanket and 2
kg powder
extinguisher
(owner), branch
pipe (firefighters).
0.5
No
No
February
2018,
Tampere
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
A fire in the engine
compartment,
possibly from an
electric engine
heater.
Branch pipe
1.5
No
No
July 1018,
Ylöjärvi
Volvo S90 T8
(PHEV)
Excess smoke from
the traction battery
while charging
Drilled holes in
the battery and
used branch pipe
4
No
[32]
October 2018,
Lapua
Think City
(BEV with
Zebra battery
[molten salt])
Caught fire while
charging. Had a
traction system
fault and was
waiting for service.
Branch pipe
2
No
[19]
March 2019,
Lahti
Hyundai Kona
Electric (BEV)
Caught fire while
charging: first
smoke under the
car, then flames.
Clear battery fire.
Branch pipe
11
Twice
[21]
September
2019, Vantaa
Toyota Auris
(HEV)
While driving, first
smell of smoke,
then flames from
the engine
compartment.
Branch pipe
1
No
No
October 2019,
Rovaniemi
Toyota Yaris
(HEV)
The car was driven
off the road one day
before. While
driving, the car
caught fire from the
high voltage
components
First-aid
extinguishing by
bystanders with
water from a
nearby ditch.
0
No
No
June 2020,
Ylöjärvi
Volvo V60
(PHEV)
While driving, the
diesel engine
stopped and started
EV mode,
simultaneously
smoke from the
Branch pipe
1
No
No
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
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E-ISSN: 2224-3496
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Volume 19, 2023
Time and
Location
Vehicle
Summary
Extinguishing
method
Water used (m3)
Re-
ignition?
Covered in
media?
engine
compartment
June 2020,
Espoo
Toyota Auris
(HEV)
Fire in the engine
compartment while
parked, with no
external reason.
Branch pipe
0.8
No
No
August 2020,
Helsinki
BMW X5
(PHEV)
Smoke from the
engine
compartment when
driving. The
firefighters found
no signs of fire, the
only hot spot in the
IR camera was the
exhaust manifold.
N/A
0
N/A
No
September
2020,
Keminmaa
Lexus GS450H
(HEV)
Caught fire when
parked, probably
from a technical
fault.
Branch pipe
0.4
No
No
March 2021,
Vantaa
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
A small fire in the
tail light when
parked, self-
extinguished when
the firefighters
arrived.
N/A
0
No
No
March 2021,
Liminka
Tesla Model 3
(BEV)
Oil leak and smoke
from the AC
compressor while
driving, but no
actual fire.
N/A
0
No
No
April 2021,
Sysmä
Lexus (HEV)
While driving,
smoke under the
seat and flames
from the back left
corner. 12 V battery
suspected.
Branch pipe
3
No
[50]
May 2021,
Helsinki
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
While driving,
smoke from the
engine
compartment, then
fire
Branch pipe
5
No
No
June 2021,
Utajärvi
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
Immediately after
driving, the 12 V
battery started a fire
First-aid was
extinguished by
the driver with a
small amount of
water
0
No
No
December
2021, Vantaa
Mercedes-Benz
GLE 500e
4MATIC
(PHEV)
While driving, fire
in the engine
compartment. Not a
battery fire, but re-
ignited because the
HV system was not
properly
deactivated.
Hand
extinguishers and
branch pipe
0.5
Once
[51] (A Pronto-
based yearly
review – not
reported in the
local news media.)
May 2022,
Helsinki
BMW X5
(PHEV)
Caught fire when
parked and not
plugged in.
Branch pipe and
penetrating lance
for battery
4
No
No
May 2022,
Kemijärvi
BMW X5
(PHEV)
Caught fire while
driving.
The fire brigade
chose to let the car
burn down, in a
rural area.
0.2
No
No
May 2022,
Siilinjärvi
BMW 320e
(PHEV)
Began smoking
while charging.
Caught fire when
being winched
farther from the
Branch pipe
2
No
No
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.119
Vesa Linja-Aho
E-ISSN: 2224-3496
1325
Volume 19, 2023
Time and
Location
Vehicle
Summary
Extinguishing
method
Water used (m3)
Re-
ignition?
Covered in
media?
house by the fire
brigade
August 2022,
Tampere
Toyota Prius
(HEV)
Smoke from the
trunk when parked.
No fire and no hot
surfaces when
inspected with an
IR camera.
N/A
0
N/A
No
December
2022,
Rovaniemi
Unspecified
BEV
The fire brigade
called but no fire on
site. Very deficient
report.
N/A
0
N/A
No
January 2023,
Lahti
Scania bus
(BEV)
HV battery modules
started burning
during the test
drive.
Branch pipe,
submerging the
removed modules
4
No
[29]
February
2023, Kolari
Mercedes Benz
E-Class Hybrid
(PHEV)
Flames from the
floor when driving
Branch pipe
2
No
No
March 2023,
Lohja
Tesla Model Y
(BEV)
A BEV was slightly
damaged from a
building fire (the
fire did not start
from the car)
Branch pipe
0.1
No
[22]
March 2023,
Loppi
Kia EV6 (BEV)
While driving, the
driver heard a boom
from the back of the
car, then smoke and
flames. No battery
fire, an inverter
fault.
Branch pipe
3
No
[18]
May 2023,
Helsinki
Volvo S60
(PHEV)
A parked vehicle
battery ignited
spontaneously.
Branch pipe
1
No
No
May 2023,
Mikkeli
Range Rover
(PHEV)
The battery ignited
spontaneously
while driving.
Branch pipe +
submerging the
extinguished
vehicle
2 (extinguisging) +
12 (submerging)
No
[33]
May 2023,
Kouvola
Mercedes 250E
(PHEV)
A building fire, four
cars inside
involved, of which
one is a PHEV. The
electrical wiring,
charging station, or
the internal charger
was suspected.
Branch pipe
189 (total for the
structural fire, not
comparable)
No
[35]
May 2023,
Pälkäne
Range Rover
(PHEV)
Fire in the engine
compartment while
driving
Branch pipe
2.5
No
No
June 2023,
Lahti
VW ID.Buzz
(BEV)
The van was
plugged in and fully
charged, and gases
vented from the HV
battery deflagrated
damaging the
vehicle and causing
a fire alarm. Three
days later, the
vehicle caught full
fire while waiting
for investigations.
No actual fire in
the first event. The
re-ignition was
extinguished by
branch pipe and
by submerging the
vehicle after that.
10
Once
[23]
June 2023,
Tampere
BMW X5
(PHEV)
A plugged-in
PHEV caught fire
after charging
finished, fire spread
to the garage.
Branch pipe
12.5 (total for the
structural fire, not
comparable)
No
No
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.119
Vesa Linja-Aho
E-ISSN: 2224-3496
1326
Volume 19, 2023
Time and
Location
Vehicle
Summary
Extinguishing
method
Water used (m3)
Re-
ignition?
Covered in
media?
June 2023,
Tuusula
Yutong E12
(BEV bus)
Brake of a bus was
overheated and
caused a tire fire.
Branch pipe
1
No
No
July 2023, Iitti
Mercedes-Benz
C350 E
(PHEV)
A hybrid car started
the engine by itself
and did not turn off
the key. Had been
driven 4 hours
before the incident.
Flames under the
hood behind the
engine. No battery
fire is suspected.
Powder
extinguisher
0
No
No
July 2023,
Vantaa
Mercedes-Benz
GLC Coupe
(PHEV)
A PHEV caught fire
while plugged in.
Fire spread to one
another car and
three other cars
suffered damage
from the heat.
Branch pipe
3.3 (including the
neighboring car)
No
No
July 2023,
Helsinki
Nissan Leaf
(BEV)
An arsonist had
made a fire next to
trash bins and a
carport. Four
vehicles, including
one BEV, caught
fire. No battery fire.
Branch pipe
8
No
No
July 2023,
Salo
Nissan Leaf
(BEV)
The driver drove
out of the road in a
bend. The vehicle
fell 5 meters and
the rocks on the
ground damaged
the battery and
ignited it. The
driver and
passenger managed
to leave the car.
The bottom of the
vehicle was
immersed in water
to prevent re-
ignition.
Branch pipe +
immersion to
prevent re-ignition
during transport
2
No
[26], [27] (No
mention of the fact
that the vehicle
was electric.)
August 2023,
Lohja
BMW 330e
(PHEV)
While driving, the
driver noticed a
strong smell of fuel,
then smoke and
flames from the
engine
compartment. No
battery fire.
Branch pipe +
foaming
2
No
No
December
2023, Helsinki
Unknown
(HEV)
Front brakes
overheated while
driving a rental
HEV car, and
smoke and flames
were reported.
Extinguished by
throwing snow on
the wheels and
brakes.
First-aid
extinguishing with
snow
0
No
No
December
2023, Tuusula
Mercedes-Benz
C 350 e
(PHEV)
A PHEV caught fire
while driving, the
driver stopped at a
parking lot and
Branch pipe +
foaming
0.1
No
No
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.119
Vesa Linja-Aho
E-ISSN: 2224-3496
1327
Volume 19, 2023
Time and
Location
Vehicle
Summary
Extinguishing
method
Water used (m3)
Re-
ignition?
Covered in
media?
called the
emergency number.
Extinguished with
water and foam.
December
2023, Oulu
Tesla Model 3
(BEV)
Pale smoke under
the hood near the
left front light, no
actual fire. The
smoke entered the
cabin also. The heat
pump is suspected.
N/A
0
No
No
Contribution of Individual Authors to the Creation
of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting Policy)
The author contributed in the present research, at all
stages from the formulation of the problem to the final
findings and solution.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Conflict of Interest
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en_
US
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT
DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.119
Vesa Linja-Aho
E-ISSN: 2224-3496
1328
Volume 19, 2023