The Spatial Characteristics of Traditional Villages and Their Heritage

Protection based on Landscape Genes

HAO WU, TIAN LIANG, TAO SHEN*

Krirk University,

Bangkok,

THAILAND

*Corresponding Author

Abstract: - The landscape genes are born from the genetic concept of biology and can play an active role in the

internal mechanism and external expression of the spatial characteristics of traditional settlements. The

landscape genes are the key elements to distinguish the characteristics of each type, and the emphasis on the

causes of the evolution of material forms and spatial and temporal conditions can, to a certain extent,

effectively help to study the regular characteristics of the traditional village landscape. Based on landscape

genes, this paper studies the spatial characteristics of traditional villages and their inheritance and protection

mechanisms, to construct a traditional village landscape genetic system and verify its scientificity by taking

Huizhou traditional villages as an example. In order to provide some reference for the study of spatial

characteristics of traditional villages and the inheritance and protection of traditional villages.

Key-Words: - landscape genes, traditional villages in Huizhou, identification system, landscape characteristics

Received: October 13, 2022. Revised: February 17, 2023. Accepted: March 15, 2023. Published: April 19, 2023.

1 Introduction

Huizhou, originally inhabited by the ancient Yue

people, was forced by frequent wars to move a large

number of people from the Middle Kingdom into

the area, [1]. During this period, the culture of the

Central Plains, the minority culture, and the local

ancient Yue culture began to intermingle. The

village layout and architectural forms were also

influenced by intermingled cultures. The natural

topography of Huizhou mountains and rivers and

water network restricts people to live in the micro

plains among the mountains and the undulating

terrain, and the harsh living status and limited

transformation ability, the villages can only choose

the free-form layout suitable for the environment.

Influenced by the natural environment and history

and humanities, there are still the most well-

preserved ancient villages in Huizhou, such as: Xidi

and Hongcun, the “Painted Countryside”,

Chengkan, the “First Village in the South”, Shuikou,

the “First Village “Tang Mode” and so on. These

ancient villages with long historical and cultural

backgrounds hide unique landscape genes, which

can be effectively used in contemporary

construction after identification, thereby building

modern towns with unique regional cultures, [2]. In

recent years, a series of important achievements

have been made in the research of the "landscape

gene map" of Chinese traditional villages combined

with GIS technology. However, the research on the

landscape genes of Huizhou ancient villages focuses

on the identification and extraction methods, such as

the basic knowledge and extraction from the

perspective of cultural geography, Nie uses the

biological gene sequence, and the spatial

characteristic analysis of Huizhou ancient villages is

not deep enough. This paper analyzes the genetic

perspective of the village landscape, aiming at the

environmental and cultural factors of the village,

and uses the landscape gene identification method to

identify the unique regional cultural characteristics

of the village. This paper dissects the landscape

characteristics of Huizhou traditional villages based

on the perspective of landscape genes and explores

the connection between the landscape texture of

Huizhou culture and the village landscape. It

provides a more effective way for the deep

excavation and scientific expression of the internal

characteristics of Huizhou traditional villages and

provides solid theoretical support and practical

guidance for the inheritance and protection of the

landscape of Huizhou traditional villages.

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2 Spatial Morphology Analysis

Method of Traditional Villages

2.1 The Quantitative Analysis of Traditional

Village Spatial Patterns

At present, the quantitative analysis of traditional

village spatial patterns is an important research

method to interpret the inner rules of traditional

village spatial patterns, including GIS technology,

geometric pattern index analysis method, landscape

pattern index analysis method, spatial sentence

method, and spatial parameterization analysis

method (Table 1).

Table 1. Quantitative research methods of

traditional village space

Technical

method

Space

scale

Applicable to village

objects

GIS

technology

Village

system

and

village

area scale

The spatial system

structure and spatial

distribution pattern of

the internal spatial

elements of

individual villages or

the villages within the

region

Geometric

and

morphological

exponential

analysis

method

Village

system

and

village

area scale

The boundary of the

spatial form and the

flat form of a single

village or the spatial

distribution pattern of

the villages within the

region

Landscape

pattern index

analysis

method

Village

system

Individual or regional

plot elements within

the village

Spatial syntax

Village

scale

Single village space

form, street space,

public space

Spatial

parametric

analytical

method

Village

scale

Parameter values

of each element in the

internal space of a

single village

Among, Fractal theory is the use of fractal

dimensions and mathematical methods to express

shapes with complex geometric forms. In the study

of the spatial morphology of traditional villages, [3],

[4], the parameters of the geometric morphological

index analysis method of fractal theory, i.e.,

boundary shape index and fractal dimension, are

used to interpret the overall spatial morphological

characteristics of traditional villages. The boundary

shape index reflects the closed graphic boundary of

the village made by the combination of solid and

imaginary elements of the external space of the

village and is to evaluate the compactness of the

village layout. Its calculation formula is as follows

The boundary shape index is calculated as:

 







S5.15.1 



(1)

Where,

is the village boundary shape index,

the village boundary perimeter

the area, and



the village aspect ratio. Fractal dimension is to

reflect the complexity or fragmentation degree of

the graph, reveals the complexity performance of

the internal spatial elements of traditional villages,

and reflects the spatial structure and internal spatial

organization efficiency of traditional villages. Its

calculation formula is as follows

Fractal dimension calculation formula.

 

Dlg

lg2













(2)

Where

denotes the fractal dimension value,

denotes the perimeter of the patch, and

denotes the

area of the patch.

2.2 Traditional Village Spatial Morphology

Gene Analysis Method

The analysis of the spatial morphological

characteristics of traditional villages can be carried

out from the physical geography of traditional

villages in the region, the surrounding geography of

individual traditional villages, and the spatial layout,

structure, and internal spatial elements of villages.

Therefore, traditional villages can be analyzed at

three spatial levels: macroscopic, mesoscopic, and

microscopic. In the analysis of spatial characteristics

of traditional villages, the spatial distribution of

traditional villages and their spatial relationship with

natural environment elements are analyzed by GIS

technology at the regional spatial scale to grasp the

historical spatial pattern of villages in a lineage. In

the overall spatial scale of the village, the landscape

pattern index analysis method is to analyze the

evolution of the elements of the parcel in the village

space, but the spatial morphological structure of the

traditional village is more stable due to the spatial

environment and protection planning, so it is more

reasonable to use the geometric morphological

index analysis method to construct the overall

geometric morphological structure of the village

space and the internal spatial organization

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efficiency. In the analysis of internal spatial

elements of villages, the spatial parameterization

analysis method is to analyze each element of the

internal space of villages, but the result is the

analysis of the characteristic difference of parameter

values, lacking the exploration of the inner social

and cultural order of spatial elements, while the

spatial sentence method can effectively interpret this

relationship and grasp the inner spatial relationship

of village street space and public space, [5], [6].

Therefore, this study adopts GIS technology, spatial

syntax, and geometric morphological index analysis

to analyze the characteristics of spatial

morphological genetic elements of traditional

villages (Table 2).

Table 2. Table of spatial morphological genetic analysis methods of traditional villages

Spatial level

Elements

Technical method

Elements parsing

Macro level

geographical conditions

The GIS spatial analysis

technique

Analyze the parameter values between

the village spatial form layout and the

external environment, and reveal the

internal spatial relationship between

the village spatial form and the

geographical environment

Middle level

Plane boundary

Geometric and morphological

exponential analysis method

Reactions to the compact of the

overall outer outline of the village

public space

It reflects the degree of spatial

structure and the organizational

efficiency of the village space

Microlevel

Street space

Spatial syntax

It reflects the spatial morphological

characteristics of village streets and

lanes and the structural characteristics

of village public space

public space

It reflects the change of the original

spatial form characteristics by the

village spatial form evolution

Building courtyard

It reflects the internal spatial

relationship of the traditional

architectural structure and the spatial

behavior of the internal users of the

traditional architecture

3 Identification of Landscape Genes

of Huizhou Ancient Villages

3.1 Identification principles

Huizhou's ancient village landscape system is rich,

in identifying landscape genes, it can be based on

the basic form of landscape elements, i. e. three

basic forms of point, line, and surface, or according

to the identification principles of landscape genes:

intrinsically unique, externally unique, locally

unique and overall advantage four principles, [7],

[8]. The traditional village landscape gene

identification method is constructed in terms of

structure, form, meaning, elements, etc. The specific

identification system relationship is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Landscape genetic theory identification

system

Here the two are combined to identify the landscape

genes of Huizhou ancient villages based on the

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identification principles at the level of three

elements. Intrinsic uniqueness, landscape genes

formed for reasons that other villages do not have,

extrinsic uniqueness, landscape elements, a

composition that other villages do not have, local

uniqueness, other villages do not have, local but

more critical elements, overall advantage, landscape

elements that are prevalent but particularly

prominent in the village. Combined with the point,

line, and surface elements the Huizhou village

landscape genes are identified as village space form,

village water system form, public space, residential

architecture, sign structures, and decorative

materials (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Gene identification mode of Huizhou ancient

village landscape

3.2 Landscape Genes Identification

3.2.1 Village Spatial Morphology

The morphology and spatial layout of Huizhou's

ancient villages are influenced by the specific nature

and regional culture of Huizhou. In the early period,

Huizhou villages were restricted by the natural

environment, and most of them existed in free form,

such as along rivers and hillsides, etc. At this time,

the village form was mostly regimented and linear,

[9], [10]. Later, the clan ritual and legal system

controlled the formation and development of

villages, and the clustering type villages began to be

formed, which were planned by feng shui

geomancers, with the clan ancestral hall as the

center, and the “snowball” type form was built

outward in the order of respect. With the strong

financial support of Huizhou merchants, the village

form is laid out according to some specific

psychological needs, to hold a special spiritual

symbol, among which there are “boat-shaped” Xidi,

“buffalo-shaped” Hongcun, “fish-shaped Fish-

shaped” Yuliang Village (Fig.3) and other pictorial

villages.

Fig. 3: Plan of Yuliang Village

3.2.2 Village Water System Form

The ancient villages in Huizhou have complex

topography, abundant precipitation, and a dense

water system, so Huizhou people have a set of

mature water management methods. Huizhou

villages are often built beside mountain valleys, and

the water system can flow along the edge of the

village, it can also pass through the village and

become the main line of the village. The village uses

the topography to bring the water from a high place

and goes through the whole village to facilitate the

use of the whole village. Such a water line can also

be used as a street of the village, with stone slabs on

top of the gutter for ground and water-friendly

purposes, [11], [12]. In addition to the linear water

system, ancient villages are more often surface-

shaped waters, such as the mouth of the water. The

surface waters are generally formed by the

collection of linear water systems and are the public

space of the village. In addition to meeting the daily

needs of the function, they are more important for

drought and flood control, fire-fighting, and disaster

prevention. The water form is variable, and

merchants are willing to provide funds to build a

more aesthetic waterscape.

3.2.3 Public Space

(1) Ancestral hall. In the general environment of

Huizhou clan society and the strong support of

Huizhou merchants, the construction of public

buildings often has a very important metaphor. The

ancestral hall is the symbol of the Huizhou clan and

the core of the village, and is the external form and

physical carrier of clan culture, in addition to

genealogy and ancestor worship activities, [13],

[14]. Each courtyard is relatively high to show the

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meaning of ascending step by step. The ancestral

hall is divided into a patio style and a gallery style,

mainly consisting of several triple courtyards set

together, with a relatively open interior space. The

overall architectural style is grand and imposing,

with windowless and undecorated walls, largely

white areas, contrasting with the green tiles on the

roof, and the contrast between the light and dark of

the hall and the patio, emphasizing the solemn and

mysterious atmosphere of the ancestral hall. In the

details, because the ancestral hall is limited in color,

carving techniques are used extensively. The

complex craftsmanship is used to bring the ancestral

hall closer to the imperial grandeur to show the

importance the ancient Huizhou people attached to

the ancestral hall.

(2) Study hall. The academy, on the other hand, is

mostly founded for the sons and daughters of the

clan and is a place for clan education and talent

cultivation. Based on the characteristics of

residential architecture, public buildings such as

ancestral halls and study halls are more hierarchical,

and their scale is generally two or three quadrangle

courtyards, with the best craftsmanship, the most

rigorous carving and decoration, and rich spatial

levels to give people a sense of solemnity, [15],

[16].

(3) Shuikou. The embodiment of astronomical and

geographical views. Huizhou people observe the sun

rising in the east and setting in the west, the river

from west to east, that the most ideal planning

pattern of village site selection is beside the river

from northwest to southeast. Tangmo Village is a

typical Shuikou Village. Huizhou people believe

that the location and environment of the water

mouth are related to the village's fortune and the rise

and fall of the clan, so the location of the water

mouth is valued. Shuikou is often based on the

direction of the mountain, at the turn of the

mountain range or the confrontation of two

mountains, surrounded by clear streams, and in the

same direction as the village entrance. If the village

is back to the mountain, its river from the two

mountains outflow, then this is ideal. At the

beginning of the village landscape, Shuikou is a

comprehensive Shuikou garden with strong regional

characteristics, including a natural landscape,

various buildings, flowers and trees, and carvings.

The water in the confrontation between two

mountains reflects a “paradise” like beauty, and the

water mouth integrates the surrounding natural

environment and artificial structures to form the

unique water mouth landscape of Huizhou.

3.2.4 Residential Architecture

(1) Shape and structure. The residential houses

choose the advantages of both dry bar style and

courtyard style. Huizhou is restricted by the natural

environment of dense mountains and water, so it is

difficult for the villages to expand outward in a

faceted way, and the population is still growing,

which leads to more and more tension in the land of

the villages. Facing such a problem, Huizhou people

choose a compact layout to save land, mostly in the

form of three walls and one room, and the building

is mostly two-story. The housing is in the form of

multiple courtyards with “patio + courtyard”,

forming high houses and deep gardens that are

flexibly arranged according to function and scale,

[17], [18].

(2) Roof (horse head wall). Most Huizhou dwellings

have hard roofs, and the two sides are high roofs

with horse-head walls, and the two sides are covered

with green tiles. The roof adds a unique charm

because of the horse-head wall. The initial use of the

horse head wall was for fire prevention, but later it

evolved into anti-theft and wind prevention. When

the village developed and expanded, it became a

decoration to save the land and connect neighbors.

Later on, it changed from a general fire sealing wall

to a horse head wall as a unique landscape element

in Huizhou. The horse-head wall is an indispensable

landscape element of Huizhou architecture and has

become the most characteristic landscape gene of

Huizhou after long-term development.

(3) Patio. The embodiment of the unity of heaven

and man. “The internal space of the dwelling has a

strong sense of closure because of the tall outer

wall, and the “patio” is set up as an open space. The

establishment of the patio is deeply influenced by

the historical environment and humanistic concept

of Huizhou, and the water on the roof converges to

the yin well through the patio, which is the

visualization of gathering water as gathering wealth

and “fat water does not flow out”. The patio is an

open space enclosed by the main house and high

walls for ventilation, light, and drainage. The patio

is the center of the enclosed inner courtyard, and

other basic building units are set up around it, with

common structures such as concave, H-shaped, and

mouth-shaped, [19], [20].

3.2.5 Sign Structures

The pagoda, the residence, and the ancestral hall are

called the “three best things in Huizhou”. As a

derivative of ancestral halls, pagodas are used to

commend merits and protect the interests of feudal

clans. Against the background of powerful clan

strength and a strong economic foundation, the

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number and scale of pagodas in Huizhou have

reached the top. Regardless of the high official

position or chaste reputation, pagodas are erected,

which is the embodiment of Huizhou people in

Confucian political theory and moral and ethical

concepts. The pagoda is a combination of

architecture and carving, set in a prominent position

in the village, in front of the village entrance,

intersection, and ancestral hall, and the overall

height is spectacular and beautifully decorated. The

form is divided into rushing type, such as Tangyue

village pagoda group (Fig.4), pagoda type, such as

Xidi Jiaozhou Assassins Square (Fig.5), the function

is divided into sign square, merit square, and

centennial square, etc. pagoda is a special landscape

element representing the patriarchal thought and the

identity of the master, showing the cultural

landscape of the village, highlighting the Huizhou

concept of patriarchy, [21].

Fig. 4: Tangyue village pagoda group

Fig. 5: Xidi Jiaozhou Assassins Square

3.2.6 Decoration Materials

(1) Wood carving. Huizhou is rich in forest

resources, and wood is used more in the

construction of residential houses. Wood carving is

generally formulated according to the specific needs

of the building, and round carving, relief carving,

and perspective carving are all common techniques

of carving. Wood carving is the main form, mainly

used for doors, beams, grilles, skylights, and

furniture. From the initial scale in the early Ming

Dynasty to the mainstream techniques after the

middle of the Ming Dynasty, wood carving has

become the essence of Huizhou folk art, [22].

(2) Brick carving. Brick carving is fresh and elegant,

more decorated in the fine parts of buildings, such

as door hoods, door towers, window heads, and ends

of horse head walls. The brick carving uses the

green and gray bricks produced in Huizhou and

selects the theme patterns with ethical and edifying

significance. Brick carving is a typical skill

inherited for thousands of years, taken from local

materials and adapted to life. As the decorations of

Huizhou architecture, its higher practicality,

ornamental and cultural meanings become the

unique landscape genes of Huizhou ancient villages.

(3) Stone carving. Stone carving is thick and

dashing, less used, and commonly used in the base

of residential houses, ancestral halls, and pagodas.

Stone carving has a long history, and the stone

carving of Huizhou ancient villages is taken from

green and black marble, with profound regional

characteristics, [23].

4 Strategies of Traditional Village

Inheritance Protection based on

Landscape Genes

4.1 Integrate Landscape Gene Information

and Clarify Protection Priority Level

The genetic elements of traditional village space

form are a two-way process of inheritance and

variable development, which keeps changing with

social development and lifestyle transformation. The

cultural activities such as clan rituals, folk customs,

and religious beliefs of traditional villages in

Huizhou have changed with the development of

modern society. The villagers combine the

traditional cultural customs with the modern society

to show a cultural atmosphere that meets the needs

of contemporary society and retains the

characteristics of traditional life, to realize the

adaptation of the historical culture of Huizhou

traditional villages with social development and the

regeneration and continuation of the connotation

spirit of the villages. In addition, the spatial function

of a traditional village accompanies the change of

social environment and family to meet the needs of

the village's socio-economic development. At the

same time, the architectural courtyard space is the

most changeable spatial element in the traditional

village spatial form. It changes with the change in

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the building construction process, materials, and

environment, while the traditional street space and

marked node space change with the change in the

overall spatial environment of the village.

Therefore, in the process of inheritance and

protection of the cultural landscape of traditional

villages in Huizhou, it is a key step to deeply

excavate the landscape characteristics of traditional

villages, clarify the content of the regional

landscape, identify and extract the landscape genes

of traditional villages and integrate the genetic

information of the genes, and sort out the main

landscape genes of existing landscape genes of

villages that fit the historical lineage of village

development, [24]. The clarification of the

importance level among landscape genes and the

implementation of the protection priority of

landscape elements in traditional villages can make

the protection planning of traditional villages more

scientific and effective.

4.2 Revitalize Village Landscape Elements

and Create Characteristic Landscape

Imagery

Different landscape gene combination has different

landscape effect, in gene identification, great value

but the degree of obvious factors, the landscape

elements (gene) are gradually lost in the process of

traditional village development, and the current

traditional village heritage protection needs to be

implemented is activate the corresponding

landscape elements, form the characteristic

landscape effect. For example, in the protection and

development mode of Hongcun, the private

enterprise spent a huge amount of money to

cooperate with an international team to create a

large-scale live-scene cultural stage drama named

"Hongcun Aju" with the background of ancient

Huizhou culture. The stage play reproduces the

strong image of Huizhou women who are thrifty,

teaching and raising children, faithful, and

defending their homes. With "the macro village,

chrysanthemum" and other entity stages for the

template of artistic creation, not only make the

ancient Huizhou culture story, and historical

context, in the process of broadcast activate the

corresponding Huizhou cultural landscape, such as

window display, lion dance and lantern + light,

architecture, dance show, and through actor

costumes, architectural form, architectural

decoration style, fully present the period of social

aesthetic concept, activate the historical period of

Huizhou traditional village of social form, to create

Huizhou characteristic landscape. At the same time,

the existing building in Pingshan Village, "Imperial

Guard", has been transformed into a coffee

restaurant bar and a homestay. On the premise of

retaining its original landscape features, it changes

its functional attributes and service objects. The

transformation mode integrates protection and

development, which not only activates the ancient

traditional villages and buildings, and makes them

have different images of The Times in the

development of The Times, but also creates

landscape types that meet the needs of modern

people so that participants can not only enjoy the

traditional old buildings of Huizhou but also meet

the needs of leisure and entertainment. So draw on

the empirical model of such cases, for some ancient

villages where ancient buildings are in disrepair, we

should take landscape genetic mapping as the basis,

clarify the historical formation of village landscape

elements, combine the temporal order and

importance of landscape genes, activate village

landscape elements, and clarify their construction

subject, service object, functional positioning and

other attributes, re-planning and designing the

landscape elements, replacing the functions of

hollow houses, vacant house bases and residential

buildings with the will of transformation, forming

an integrated architectural space for entertainment,

accommodation and catering, and landscaping the

wasteland to become a place for tourists to watch

and learn, realizing functional transformation, so as

to revitalize the village landscape elements in a

targeted manner and create characteristic landscape

intention, and comprehensively build the

development strategy of rural tourism, [25].

4.3 Protect the Living Cultural Landscape

and Improve the Inherited Cultural Value

Retracing the spatial state of the “prototype” of

traditional Huizhou village spatial form in each

historical period, maintaining the true expression of

the genetic elements of village spatial form, [26]. At

the macro spatial level, we maintain the original

spatial environment pattern and historical and

cultural connotation of the village, and based on

this, we improve the protection and repair of the

spatial genetic elements of the village based on the

spatial patterns and features of the village in each

historical period, to maintain the originality of the

spatial genetic elements of the traditional village to

the greatest extent. In addition, it establishes a

corresponding protection mechanism and sets up a

relevant award system to help the long-term survival

of the intangible cultural heritage of Huizhou,

including the inheritance of artisans, the

continuation of crafts, and the protection and

management of books such as related historical

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documents, etc., to fundamentally protect the living

cultural landscape, improve the value of inherited

culture, and implement the protection measures of

“repairing the old as the old, managing in place The

protection measures such as “repairing the old as the

old, managing in place” are implemented, and

finally the protection mechanism of traditional

villages in Huizhou is implemented.

5 Conclusion

Huizhou's ancient village landscape is the

embodiment of Huizhou's cultural values based on

the natural environment and is influenced by a

combination of factors. Feng Shui guides the form

and layout of the village and uses the landscape

environment to form the initial form of the village

landscape, the clan dominates the development of

the village, and the village landscape under the

influence of ritual and law system has strong clan

characteristics, and the clan becomes the driving

factor of the development of the village landscape,

the Hui merchants use capital to expand the scale of

the village landscape construction, and combine the

clan and science to establish educational institutions

such as academies, which further enriches the

village landscape. It can be said that clans, Huizhou

merchants, and science are all intrinsic driving

forces in the formation of ancient village landscapes

with regional characteristics of Huizhou. Each

village has universality and uniqueness. Using

landscape genes to define ancient village landscapes

inherited to this day and identifying landscape genes

with historical and humanistic meanings can

effectively improve the identification of traditional

village landscapes in the Huizhou region and

provide certain references for the protection and

development of traditional villages in China.

However, due to the limited research time and the

lack of data collection and collation, the research

results have certain shortcomings. Based on this, in

the later research process, we will continue to

improve the collection of relevant data on Huizhou

ancient villages and conduct corresponding research

using more landscape genetic research methods, so

as to provide certain references for the efficient

development of the spatial characteristics of

traditional villages and their heritage protection.

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

Hao Wu has made a significant contribution to the

revised draft, provided the related concepts and

minor recommendations, extracted the conclusion

and discussion, modified the article, added relevant

literature, and made polish the article. Tian Liang

contributed to the motivation, the interpretation of

the methods, the data analysis and results, and

provided the draft versions and revised versions,

references. Tao Shen provided the data and results,

the revised versions and references.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare

that is relevant to the content of this article.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT

DOI: 10.37394/232015.2023.19.28

Hao Wu, Tian Liang, Tao Shen

E-ISSN: 2224-3496

328

Volume 19, 2023