The Compact City - Measuring Urban Sprawl using GIS
FERIM GASHI, IBRAHIM RAMADANI
Department of Geography,
University of Prishtina ''Hasan Prishtina'',
Mother Teresa Street, no: n/a, 10 000 Prishtina,
KOSOVO
Abstract: - It is thought that the compact city is the best goal to prevent or reduce the negative effects of
urbanization on the environment. Therefore, this work focuses on the use of controlled urban planning
parameters and zoning parameters, during the drafting of the urban development plan in Kosovo, which in most
cases are ignored. The aim of this paper is to find a way to develop compact and sustainable cities in Kosovo,
and is based on quantitative research. The paper evaluates the built area within “urban zones” in order to
identify the expansion tendencies of settlements, with the aim of contributing to preventing future uncontrolled
developments. Additionally, land use should be in full compliance with spatial plans, both national and local. In
this case, the treatment of the city of Kaçanik was taken as an example for Kosovo's conditions, based on the
demographic potential, intensity of land use, style of construction, with the implementation of the zoning
parameters, showing the way of land use, which should be in harmony with the concepts of sustainable
development.
Key-Words: - Compact city, urban growth, Density, Land use, Development, Sustainability
Received: October 15, 2021. Revised: July 25, 2022. Accepted: August 21, 2022. Published: September 13, 2022.
1 Introduction
Demographic growth always needs more
construction so, it is important to provide a spatial
analysis of land use. This paper focuses on the
expansion dynamics of built areas within urban
zones due to rapid social and economic changes.
The lack of quantitative and qualitative research for
the Kaçanik region has affected land use, which has
been unplanned and not-to-standard, and has not
preserved agricultural land. In the last two decades –
since 2000 – there has been considerable growth in
the construction sector across Kosovo. Although,
according to the spatial plan, property owners have
the right to develop and use their own property in
their own best interests, these regulations do not
give them the right to work outside the legal
framework of the local plan itself. This study will
contribute to the sustainable urbanization of
settlements and preservation of agricultural land.
The results of the study will also help to make
important decisions for built areas, by providing
necessary recommendations for steps to be taken to
have a land use based on common interests.
Compact cities are generally characterized by
high-density urban development. They have
increased socio-economic diversity and improved
public realm that provide many opportunities for
social interactions and exchanges; they are
pedestrian friendly and equitable access to goods,
services and facilities, thereby minimizing
environmental degradation. On the other hand, land
resources in Kosovo are limited, hence it is
necessary to accommodate the population on the
same land and make sure that sufficient land is also
available for agriculture and other purposes.
Globally, more people live in urban areas than in
rural ones, with 54% of the world’s population
residing in urban areas in 2014 [1]. With all global
population change and trend, one can notice that
Kosovo has been impacted by urban population
growth. According to the Kosovo Agency of
Statistics (2011) in Kosovo’s urban settlements, the
number of flats increased from 21,000 in 1951 to
88,000 in 1981, and has doubled today (Kosovo
Agency of Statistics, 2011).
This paper focuses mainly on the importance of
using spatial data to analyze and track social and
economic development in the city of Kaçanik. Its
aim is to get results that will help in making
important decisions about the future spatial
development and expansion of the city.
Administrative and legal spatial planning is based
on land use patterns by defining clearly the areas for
the development of socio-economic activities, in
order to conserve the best agricultural land and
increase citizens’ quality of life. To achieve this,
planning is settled by laws ranging from national
spatial planning at the first level, municipal
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development plans at the second, and detailed urban
plans at the third and lower levels. If the legal
framework of Kosovo is analyzed, one would notice
that it is still in need of improvement, including
planning regulations set out by the European Spatial
Planning Directives. Land use should be in full
compliance with spatial plans, both at the national
and local level, therefore the city of Kaçanik
approved the Urban Development Plan for the
period 2010–2020.
In the case of Kaçanik, the implementation of
numerous projects in infrastructure, education,
culture, sport, and other economic and residential
buildings, have rapidly transformed space.
However, the lack of political power and will to
implement the rules set up in the development plans
continue to be destructive to the land. Over the last
two decades, there has been a significant increase in
the construction sector. Due to the lack of
administrative and legal rules and not following
urban plans, the settlements in Kosovo have
continued to spread in a chaotic and unplanned
manner, causing distressing effects to the
environment.
2 Literature Review
Cities are considered as complex organizing systems
that require the interconnection of theories and
planning laws with different planning parameters
leading to the sustainable development of urban
centers and the efficient use of urban areas.
Planning theory, laws, and systems are focused on
the process of planning and decision-making. Alfasi
and Portugal (2007) noted the role of many factors
that shape the built environment rather than the
resultant properties of the built environment itself.
Orderly urban planning and efficient land
management, and adequate infrastructure, site
protection and services are the fundamental starting
points for appropriate and sustainable housing
within both urban expansion and urban densification
[2].
The density of construction is one of the most
important measures not only to preserve land
resources, but also to make the urban environment
functional, as well as easier access for citizens to
services. The compact city is an expression of
sustainability in its entirety (figure 1).
In the process of drafting urban or municipal
development plans, urban planning parameters such
as population density calculations, population size
calculation at the end of the projected period, land
use mode, building coefficient etc. are of particular
importance. All these problems have been addressed
by many authors, especially from [3], [4], [5], [6],
etc. Development control mechanisms and
application of urban parameters help the realization
of sustainable urban centers.
Population density is one of the indicators that
can be calculated through the techniques of
population projection [7]. An innovative approach
developed by demographer Donald Newling is the
population density model. It assumes that past
growth rates and population density, measured in
inhab/ ha, affect population changes.
The density of construction is one of the most
important factors and parameters of urban
development planning and urban regulatory
planning. Many studies point to a strong correlation
between urban density and sustainability, especially
in relation to transport [8], with a number of benefits
[9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14].
Based on various publications [15] it has been
proven that the compact city is one of the leading
paradigms of sustainable urbanism.
Compact city planning is strongly promoted by
global and local policies due to its positive
outcomes in terms of contributing to the economic,
environmental, and social goals of sustainability.
Compactness, density, diversity, mixed land use,
sustainable transportation, and green space are the
core design strategies of compact city planning and
development. The compact city model is justified by
its ability to contribute to the economic,
environmental, and social goals of sustainability,
towards balancing the three components of
sustainability.
• The concept of urban sustainability has been
addressed by many authors [16], [17], [18], [19],
[20], [21], [22], [23] who argue this process as an
interaction between social and technical solutions
for sustainable cities. As such, the compact city can
potentially address more of the wider issues of
sustainability than simply saving land from
development. However, this also means that these
wider claims of sustainability, such as
improvements in quality of life, can be questioned
on many different levels. Sustainable cities are
developed on the basis of some important criteria,
such as:
•High density and integrated land use,
•The diversity of activities,
•Mixed land use or heterogeneous zoning,
•Compactness of built environment [24],
•Sustainable transportation [25], and
•Passive solar design through the orientation of
construction and the density of construction and
“Greening” of the city [26].
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Fig. 1: Compact city planning and development:
Emerging practices and strategies for achieving the
goals of sustainability. Source: [27].
One of the contemporary researchers [28] addresses
these advances by investigating how and to what
extent the strategies of compact cities and eco-cities
and their integration have been improved and
strengthened. According to [29] the strategies of
compact cities through new planning and
development practices are being supported and
utilized by applied solutions dealing with directed
data smart cities. Sustainable urban development is
seen today as one of the keys to unlocking the
search for a sustainable world.
3 Data and Methods
During the drafting of urban development plan, it is
necessary to calculate the number of inhabitants at
the end of the planned period. The projection time
can be up to 20 years. In addition, urban plans can
be drafted for even shorter periods, but for safer
urban planning are required solutions, which enable
the city's long-term development. The population
number is verified by calculating the data for the
planned period, according to the mathematical
calculations [30]. Such a calculation of the number
of population for the planned period can also be
done for the territory of the municipality and the
state. An example in this case was the city of
Kaçanik, where the number of population was
calculated for the period 2011-2020.
The methods that have been used in connection
with the realization of this work are statistical and
mathematical methods, Comparison method,
Graphic methods, GIS method, and Cartographic
method. The object of research in this case is the
city of Kacanik (Kosovo), while this material can be
used as a methodology for the implementation of
control parameters of zoning in spatial plans, in
order to minimize errors in land use for the specified
period in the plan. The Municipal Sector assisted
data collection for this study for Urbanism,
Fieldwork and other supporting literature. With the
help of orthophotos and GIS, the analysis of the
existing situation has been made, such as the density
of residential buildings, social buildings, calculation
of population density, calculation of population at
the end of the projected period, unbuilt areas, the
way of land use, construction coefficient, etc. All
these were made concrete with maps and tables,
which helped to draw conclusions for further action.
4 Study Area
Kosovo is situated in the central part of Balkan
Peninsula. It has a surface of 10.905 square km. It is
bordered with Macedonia in the southeast, with
Albania in southwest, Serbia in the north and
northeast and with Montenegro in the west.
Surrounded by the mountains such as: Sharr
Mountains in the east and south east, Albanian Alps
in the west and Kopaonik in the north. Kosovo
stretches on two plateaus: of Kosovo on 600 m over
sea height and of Dukagjin on 300-500 m above sea
level. It has a population of around 2 million
inhabitants [31].
As a study area for this purpose, the city of Kaçanik
(Kosovo) was taken. It is located in the south part of
Kosovo Plateau, respectively in the Nerodime River
valley, at the beginning of the Gorge of Kaçanik and
Lepenc River, between the mountain and shore
complexes of Sharri and Karadak, at an altitude of
447 m. Across its territory passes the highway
Skopje- Prishtina and wider. This enabled this city
to develop communication, administrative,
craftsman ship and trade function. The urban
territory covers an area of about 200 ha, with gravity
zone of 211 km2, while according to demographic
criteria it belongs to the group of small towns of
around 13 thousand inhabitants (Municipality of
Kaçanik 2011). The convenient position of this city
between the mountainous systems of Sharri and
Karadak had to be attractive for housing since
prehistoric times [32]. Because of the relief
topography, the settlement was developed in a
longitudinal way along the banks of the Nerodime
River, but also along the Pristina - Skopje axis,
while this conditioned the linear shape of this urban
center. Kaçanik has a good urban tradition, thanks to
its strategic position as an important communication
link connecting Kosovo with North Macedonia.
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5 Results and Discussion
In the spatial planning process, it is of great
importance to discuss the gross and net density of
the population of the city. The value of gross density
is expressed by the number of inhabitants per 1
hectare of the territory of the city. This density
depends on the size and the character of the city, the
inherited structure which will be preserved
according to the plan, the natural conditions
affecting the construction mode, the number of
social and commercial buildings that are foreseen by
the plan. Gross density grows along the size of the
city. Thus, it is known that for small towns the gross
residential density reaches 100-120 inhabitants per
hectare, for medium cities 120-140 inhabitants/ ha,
while for big cities 140-150 inhabitants/ ha (Table
1) [33].
Table 1. Summary of the two case studies
Population and households in the City of Kaçanik in
the period 1948-2011.
Source: KAS-Kosovo Agency of Statistics. 2011. Kosovo
Census Atlas, Prishtina. Remark: The population in
emigration was not registered at the last census in 2011.
The precise projection of population growth for the
planned period, the needs for new housing, social
facilities, infrastructure, green areas etc., can only
be realized correctly through the implementation of
urban parameters (standardized parameters). In this
case the terms are used: Floor Space Ratio (FSR),
Floor Space Index (FSI) and Floor Area Ratio
(FAR). In the case of the city of Kaçanik: It is
allowed to build up to 5 floors, respecting the
coefficients of defined ISDmax= 2.8, IUP
(construction coefficient) = 40%, max= 50% (based
on the allowed surface for construction within the
construction line), for the purpose of mixed housing
(high construction, and business), with
accompanying spaces per inhabitant, as well as a
part of the area for greenery and recreation, parking
spaces, internal roads, pedestrian paths, playgrounds
for children etc., and low construction up to two
floors, with the specified coefficients ISDmax= 1.3,
IUP= 40%, max= 50% (Master Plan 2018).
If the natural conditions or the character of the
settlement require larger areas of greenery, lower
residential buildings, large health complexes such as
in the case of baths, then the lowest density of
housing is proposed, that is around 50-60
inhabitants per hectare. These measures can only
serve as approximate orientation when calculating
the required area for population. The real measures
of residential density are obtained only based on the
final projections, with the approval of a certain type
of residential buildings, the rate of residential space
per inhabitant, but in this case also should be taken
into account the size of families that differ in the
number of members. For the calculation of net
density (residential areas or neighborhood), the
residential complexes are taken together with the
surfaces of the social character and the internal
traffic network within the residential area.
The estimation of net density primarily depends on
the height or number of building floors and the way
of construction. As the number of floors increases,
the distance between the buildings increases due to
light, hence, the net density increases as well. The
net density does not depend solely on the
aforementioned factors, but also on the way the
buildings are grouped, the network of educational
facilities such as kindergartens, schools and social
facilities, the size of green areas and the road
network. According to Omar [34] as a rough
orientation for the first phase of projection, these
functional parts of urban territory can be obtained in
percentages: residential complex (40-50%), social
buildings (15-20%); green spaces (15-25%); road
network, stations, squares (15-20%).
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In spatial plans, space utilization is represented by
numbers for population density and density of
construction: Dn (net density) represents the ratio of
the number of inhabitants and the number of built-
up area; Db (gross density) represents the ratio
between the number of inhabitants and the areas
built with flats and broad functions such as: all
roads, parking lots, parks, primary schools,
playgrounds and recreational areas. The population
density indicator determines the number of floors
and through this becomes possible characterization
of residential construction [35] 100-200 inhabit/ha is
a parameter for ground floor and low-rise buildings
2-3 floors and 300-350 inhabit/ha is a construction
parameter for up to 5 floors. The method of use and
regulation of the space are represented by numeric
indicators as: construction coefficient, land use
coefficient and population density [36], [37].
Through this case will be analyzed implementation
of zoning control parameters in spatial plans, in
order to minimize land use errors for the foreseen
period of time in the spatial plans. The data
collection for this study was assisted by the
municipal sector for urban planning, fieldwork and
other supporting literature.
One of the most important issues in the process of
drafting spatial plans is the preparation of the
development program for the city, or the respective
area. The program represents the basis for the
drafting of the urban plan of the city of Kaçanik,
which is considered an integrated part of the urban
development plan. This plan contains the following
elements: analysis of natural conditions, including
geographic position; analysis of the existing state of
the city; economic development of the city; the
volume of residential and social buildings;
calculation of the number of population forecasted
at the end of the planned period; facilities and
premises for municipal services such as warehouses,
refrigerators, silos, slaughterhouses, bakeries,
carwashes, firefighters, large garages and parking
lots for public transport; complexes with special
functions such as health facilities, school entities,
etc., reconstruction of roads, expansion and opening
of new roads; spaces for recreation, sports and
entertainment inside and outside the city.
The scope and content of state planning legislation
varies widely from state to state with respect to its
treatment of the comprehensive plan. The American
Planning Association has developed model state
planning legislation in its Growing Smart SM
Legislative Guidebook (2002). The guidebook
suggests a series of required elements and optional
elements. Required elements include: land use,
transportation, community facilities (includes
utilities and parks and open space), housing
economic development, critical and sensitive areas,
natural hazards and agricultural lands.
However, in most urban plans in Kosovo, planning
parameters are not used properly. These parameters
ensure an accurate population growth and the
density of constructions for which the Law on
Urban Planning in Kosovo gives priority (Law on
Spatial Planning 2009). This approach would enable
the protection of agricultural land and easy access to
important social institutions. Based on the basic
elements of demographic development, the results
of population forecasting in the Kaçanik are also
provided. The average annual rate of population
growth was estimated for the period 2011–2020. It
shows the per capita contribution to the population
change over a unit time period. This rate, also
known as the intrinsic rate of increase, expresses the
change in population size as a fraction of the initial
population size. It was expressed as a percentage.
Population change results from both vegetative
growth and migratory balance in a population and
can be positive or negative, meaning population
increase or population decline, respectively [38].
Population growth rate was computed as:
𝑃𝐺𝑅 = ( 1
𝑡 ) x 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑃
𝑃𝑜 ) x 100
where PGR is the average annual population
growth rate, ln represents the natural logarithm, P
is population size in 2020, Po is population size in
2011, and t is the number of years in the study
period.
According to these calculations it turned out that in
2020 the number of population of the city of
Kaçanik would be 16.812 inhabitants. From the
existing situation analysis, the density of dwellings
is calculated on the basis of which
the net density is 92 inhabit/ha, while the gross
density is 67 inhabit/ha. The city of Kaçanik had a
continuous increase in the number of population
during forementioned period, but not high intensity
as in most urban centers in Kosovo. This is due to
the influence of the two main urban centers in the
vicinity: Skopje in the south (34 km) and Ferizaj in
the north (19 km). The population of the city grew
from 2.094, as it was in 1948, to 13.450 in 2011, or
in the period of 6 decades (1948-2011) increased by
6.4 times. Out of a total population of 13.450, it is
seen that the average population density in the city
ranges to about 70 inhabitants/ hectare. This
parameter <100 inhabitants/ hectare is not
economically reasonable from the point of view of
the establishment and maintenance of municipal
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infrastructure. These results point to the need to
change the building structure, from low-individual
buildings to high buildings (IV-VI floors). The
starting point for the upcoming population forecast
of the city is the number of 16.800 inhabitants or
3.360 more people by 2020, with the increase of the
68.000 m2 residential area fund, which will express
the increase of city density (in the center about 115
inhabitants per hectare) and the increase of intensity
of total urban land use with a coefficient of 0.24,
which is for some degrees higher than in the
previous period.
But, as it is mention before, high density of
construction doesn’t always represent better life
quality. This can be confirmed by the following
example: Figures 3 and 4 show two compact forms
from two different cities of Kosovo with the same
surface (3.5 ha) but with different forms and
contents. In Figure 3 (the central part of Kaçanik/
Kaçanik town) there are about 70 individual
residential buildings and live 300 inhabitants, or 85
inhab/ ha, while in Figure 4 (Kodra e Diellit -
Prishtina) there are six residential complexes with
240 apartments, and live over 1,100 residents, or
314 inhab/ha. Figure 3 refers to compactness, but an
unplanned development; with narrow and
dysfunctional roads, lack of greenery, lack of free
spaces, pollution, or in a word urban chaos.
Whereas, in the residential complex in Figure 4,
there are about 3.5 times more inhabitants, but with
much better living conditions; greenery, lighting,
clean and quiet environment, easy access to
services, but also protection of land from
construction etc.
The construction coefficient is the ratio of the total
built gross surface of all buildings (residential and
public) and the total area of the city complex. In
addition, the building coefficient can be calculated
only for residential buildings or public buildings,
gross area (total area of residence), or net area
(residential or work area). From the digitization of
all constructions in the town of Kaçanik, it is noted
that the total surface covered with constructions is
42 ha, while the total surface of the city is 200 ha.
According to the results the gross construction
coefficient is 0.21, which means that 21% of the
urban territory is covered with buildings, which is
not in harmony with the contemporary parameters
of the urban structure for small towns [39].
While land use coefficient is the reciprocal value of
the construction coefficient and shows how much
net land surface is needed for 1m2 of gross
constructed surface area. From this calculation, the
result is 4.8, which shows that in this area the load
of construction land is significantly lower than in
other urban areas. Obtained results show the low
building density, due to horizontal development of
the city, mainly consisting of private houses with
gardens, which decrease agricultural land. This way
of development is inconsistent with modern
planning processes [40]. Individual residences in the
settlement of Kaçanik have small land plots, mainly
in the central zone of settlement. The characteristics
of individual constructions are:
Construction without plan,
Low construction index = 0.21,
Low land plot use index = 21%,
Low density in the residential zone = 70
inhab/ha.
According to the data extracted and analyses of
population and land, the main feature of urban
development in this case is the unplanned territorial
expansion of the city, as well as the uncontrolled
and spontaneous development of residential and
business areas. At the conclusion of this research,
the authors emphasize that, the city of Kaçanik is
subject to dynamic and chaotic socio-economic
activities and therefore it is important to change the
situation by taking the following measures:
1. Drafting a regulatory plan for the central zone and
zoning the city as a whole; the definition of
expansion of the construction area through the
design and implementation of a construction line,
with particular emphasis on the protection of
agricultural lands;
2. Legalizing residential and business buildings in
accordance with standards established by law;
implementing a project for a feasibility study on the
height (floors) of buildings/facilities at the urban
zone level.
6 Conclusions
As a conclusion, the general urban characteristics of
the city of Kaçanik are as follows: Urban
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development plans in generally in Kosovo,
including partially the city of Kaçanik, have not
implemented urban development criteria and
parameters, such as population prediction at the end
of the projected period, housing density,
construction parameters and the land use coefficient.
In the city of Kaçanik predominates mainly low
constructions (individual housing) 2-3 floors, while
about 20% of urban territory is covered by facilities.
Residential function covers about 70% of the built
area, a parameter that indicates an insufficient
development of urban functions, while the average
parcel size is around 600 m2. The residential area
per member is 15.2 m2/inhabitants, which is lower
than the contemporary standards. Attendance of low
quality material facilities is considerable, mainly in
the center area. The city is characterized by a low
density of housing, the density of housing in the
center area is 93 inhabit/ha, in peripheral areas of
the city is 50 inhabit/ha, while the average density is
about 70 inhabit/ha. The population of the city grew
from 2.094, as it was in 1948, to 13.450 in 2011, or
in the period of 6 decades (1948-2011) increased by
6.4 times.
So, based on all these calculations, it can be
concluded that the city of Kaçanik, due to its low
investments and some uncontrolled professional
activities, had a slow development and irrational
land use. However, future developments promise to
change the functional urban structure and increase
the intensity of these processes, such as increasing
housing density, living standards, appropriate use of
parcels in accordance with urban standards,
advancing urban infrastructure, building socially-
owned objects, etc. All these measures will reflect
on the change of structural relations within this
urban system, which for the moment is not in
harmony with contemporary developments. From
the literature review and the short analysis of the
urban planning process of Kaçanik town, it can be
seen that the objective of harmonization of some
standard parameters and the implementation of
urban control parameters for the urban planning
needs in the territory of Kosovo has been achieved,
from the fact that spatial plans represent the basic
framework of the overall socio-economic
development orientations, as well as the assessment
of impacts on the environment. In this case, the
main analysis focused on the demographic potential,
the manner and intensity of land use, the mode and
style of construction etc. The municipal authority
should focus on strategies and implementation of
urban control parameters when drafting spatial
plans. This is a necessary act and a key element,
since all activity and organization of urban life will
be linked to them, for only one purpose, to be useful
as rationally as possible, while it is in full harmony
with the concepts of sustainable development. It is
also important that the planning code and the
building regulations are replaced with more realistic
regulations. Accurate forecasting of population
growth for the planned period, needs for new
housing, social facilities, infrastructure, green areas
etc. can only be realized correctly through the
implementation of urban control mechanisms
(standardized parameters), with the assistance of
which can be avoided eventual mistakes. This will
also reflect on the protection of agricultural land, the
protection of the environment, the management and
use of land properly within urban territory and the
functional organization of the urban system. Good
management would give concrete results for
resource conservation for the next generations as
well.
Acknowledgements:
Work is the result of a long commitment by the
authors in the preparation of the draft for the
development plans in Kosovo. The authors would
like to thank their colleague, Shpend Agaj, Senior
official in Spatial Planning Sector in Kosovo, for his
helpful comments and suggestions, which
contributed greatly to this paper.
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