Socio-Economic Dynamics of Slum Growth in Core Areas of Cities In

Developing Nations – The Ado-Ekiti Example

OLUWADARE ISAAC OLAMIJU

Urban and Regional Planning Department,

School of Environmental Studies,

Federal University of Technology, Akure,

NIGERIA

Abstract: Globalization and urbanization have been identified as having inherent capacity for the

disarticulation and dislocation of a nation’s socio-economic structure. This paper identified the socio-

economic forces responsible for slum development in the core of Ado-Ekiti. The core area was delineated

using the acquired google image which was processed using ArcView GIS software; Twelve Data

Delineation Areas (DDAs) were identified, having: 2,930 buildings and 14,650 households. A 2.5% of

households (368) was adopted as sample size. The landlord or the most senior household head was

interviewed using a structured socio-economic questionnaire. The photograph of scenes of interest were

taken to supplement information from the questionnaire. The DDAs formed the basis for questionnaire

administration. Empirical analysis shows that there is poverty in the study area due to underemployment

and low income. Government intervention through a holistic urban renewal and creation of enabling

environment for job opportunities were proffered for a sustainable city core development in Nigeria and

cities of developing nations of the world with similar characteristics.

Keywords: Ado-Ekiti, City-Core, Developing Nations, Economy, Social, and Slum.

Received: October 27, 2021. Revised: October 29, 2022. Accepted: November 25, 2022. Published: December 31, 2022.

1. Introduction and Review of

Relevant Literature:

Slums are a constituent of urban deterioration. It has

been described as a place of permanent abode which

has become degenerated through ageing and neglect,

[15]. Also, [3], enumerated ‘poverty as a factor of

slum formation’ and revealed that ‘congestion of

buildings and people are potent factors creating

opportunities for the emergence of low

environmental quality and unsanitary conditions,

which breeds contagious diseases and infections in

such deplorable parts of urban areas’.

Urban slums are also settlements, neighborhoods, or

city regions that cannot provide the basic living

conditions necessary for its inhabitants to live in a

safe and healthy environment, [9]. A household that

is deficient in durable housing, sufficient living

space, easy access to safe water, access to adequate

sanitation and security tenure is experiencing slum

conditions, [18].

Furthermore, George, [7], defines slum as ‘a group of

buildings, or an area characterized by overcrowding,

deterioration, unsanitary conditions, or absence of

facilities or amenities such as portable water,

drainage system, schools, health facilities,

recreational grounds, post office, etc; which because

of these conditions or any of them endanger the

health, safety, or morals of its inhabitants or the

community’. In the opinion of [5], a slum is ‘a highly

populated urban residential area consisting mostly of

closely packed, decrepit housing units in a situation

of deteriorated or incomplete infrastructure, inhabited

primarily by impoverished persons’.

However, [17], opines that ‘a slum area lacks any

form of government presence as core facilities such

as water, sanitation, and solid waste gathering, and

lodging structures are majorly sub-standard, which

does not conform to neighborhood building

regulations’.

From the ongoing and for the purpose of this study, a

slum can be defined as a derelict, dilapidated, filthy

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and overcrowded urban housing district with broken-

down infrastructure which is unhealthy for human

occupation.

However, a slum is a slum to whom it is a slum. A

slum to some people/nation is a place of comfort and

home to others. At this juncture, it is imperative to

identify factors that inform people’s judgement of

what a slum actually is. For instance, factors such as

unemployment, poverty, social status, income level,

availability of job opportunities at the city center and

professionalism of individuals among others,

influence people’s verdict on slum identification. For

illustration, informal job opportunities abound in the

slum areas of cities especially at the city centers. This

phenomenon makes people relocate to city centers

even when there are opportunities to live in other

better parts of the city. A good example of this can be

found in India, where the [19], posits that ‘the share

of urban Indians living in slums is 24% - about 100

million people; and the government, in an attempt to

rectify this situation, made it a policy to give land to

slum dwellers on the urban outskirts’. Since they

were unable to secure jobs outside the city; they

ended up selling the land or giving it to relatives, and

returning to more centrally located slums. It is

therefore evident that to these class of ‘slum

dwellers’, who find solace in relocating to voluntarily

to slum areas would never see anything decadent in

living in slum areas neither would they call it slum,

but home.

Again, slum dwellers are said to ' provide economic

good as they subsidize the middle classes and the

business world by providing a comparatively cheap

source of labor’ [4], [10]. It has also been argued that

‘their low economic standing and general lack of

education forces them to accept low-paying jobs that

may not be readily accepted by middle- and upper-

class people’, [16]. Considering all these arguments,

a low income earner, gainfully employed in the

informal subsector at the city’s blighted areas would

never consider his work place or residence as a slum.

In other words, the skill and level of education of

individuals would judge his identification of a slum.

So, a slum arena in the views and perceptions of a

skilled worker such as a Medical Doctor or a Lawyer

would not be a slum to a garbage collector or a

cleaner at the city center.

Furthermore, [18], notes that ‘the global housing

crisis is responsible for slum conditions worldwide;

with over 1.6 billion people living without adequate

shelter’. Characteristically, life in the slums is not

desirable as families are cut off from the most basic

services and often have to deal with violence. City

centers in developing nations, especially in Nigeria,

are usually unplanned and are typically not connected

to basic services such as clean water, sanitation and

hygiene facilities. Slum residents are at great risk of

contracting water-borne and respiratory diseases (e.g.

due to overcrowding). Besides, high population

density, lack of proper toilets and close propinquity

of homes allow diseases to spread quickly. This

phenomenon creates a real risk for large populations

who are often unable to access adequate health

facilities to get treatment in time.

Additionally, in most slum areas, especially in

developing nations, city centers do not enjoy modern

planning. The streets do not conform to any form of

street pattern; the roads are in deplorable conditions

and without drainage facilities; abrupt dead-end roads

and buildings without any form of access abound.

With all these, it is usually difficult for emergency

and law enforcement vehicles to navigate as a result

of unplanned and tightly woven pathways, without

road signs resulting in difficulties monitoring and

controlling crime and providing health services. This

study, therefore, examines the socio-economic

dynamics of residents in the core area of Ado Ekiti;

investigates the environmental, housing and

transportation characteristics in the study area in

order to analyze the state of slums in the city.

2. Materials and Methods:

2.1 Research Locale: The study area is the

core of Ado Ekiti. Ado-Ekiti is the cultural

headquarters of the homogenous people of Ekiti

which became the capital city following the creation

of Ekiti State on 1st October, 1996. Prior to this

development, the city was the headquarters of Ado

Local Government Area in the old Ondo State, a state

that was in itself carved out of the former Western

region of Nigeria on February 3, 1976. Presently,

Ado Ekiti plays the dual role of a Local Government

headquarter, of Ado Local Government Area and the

State Capital of Ekiti State.

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This dual role has necessitated the convergence of

government ministries and parastatals in Ado Ekiti;

and has attracted people from other neighboring

towns and villages culminating in population rise and

consequent competition for housing and other

facilities in the city especially at the city core. The

city has therefore witnessed a phenomenal growth in

population since its creation. From a total population

of 127,579 in 1991, the city’s population was

estimated at 199,753 in 2004, [12]. By 2006, the

population had risen to 2,384,212, [12]. The

projected population of Ekiti State is 3,728,803

applying the 2.5% growth rate and the 2006 Census

figure as the base population. Ekiti State is made up

of three (3) Senatorial Districts – Ekiti Central, Ekiti

North and Ekiti South. The State is located in the

tropical climate region with distinct wet and dry

seasons, [2]. It is located between Latitude 70 31’ and

70 49’ North of the equator and Longitudes 50 7’ and

50 27’ East of the Greenwich Meridian. It is bounded

on the North by Kwara and Kogi States; Osun State

to the West; Edo State to the East; and Ondo State to

the South. Ekiti State is a landlocked State and hence

has no coastal boundary. Agriculture is the main

occupation of the people, which provides income and

employment to over 75% of the population. Some of

the cash crops grown include cocoa, oil palm, kola

nut, cashew, citrus etc; while food crops grown are

rice, yam, cassava, maize and cowpea among others.

[1], notes that the core area of Ado Ekiti is populated

by the low income earners and sparingly by

indigenous wealthy people who are inclined to living

in the area as a result of attachment to traditional ties,

culture and rites. The core of Ado Ekiti, cover places

such as: Idolofin, Okeila, Okeyinmi, Ogbon Ado,

Odo Ado, Irona, Ereguru, Mugbagba, Oke Agidi,

Inisanya, Ilado, Ugbalitere, Imayo, OkeAge, Ojido,

Imayo, Idemo, Ogbon Oba, Aremu, Orereowu,

Okeoriomi and Atikankan, [1]. The maps of Nigeria,

Ekiti State and Ado Ekiti showing the study area in

its national regional and local settings are as shown in

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Map of the Study Area in Its National,

Regional and Local Settings

Source: Ministry of Surveys, Abuja (Digitized in

AutoCAD) by the Author.

2.2 The Database: This paper delineates the

core area of Ado-Ekiti from the acquired Google

image of the city and examines the socio-economic

characteristics of residents in the study area. The

google image of the study area was analyzed using

ArcView GIS software. Accurate distances and areas

were calculated to supplement data on questionnaire

administration. Characteristics such as the

occupation, level of income, employment, education,

length of stay in the area, number of persons per

household, number of persons per room and marital

status among others were investigated. Table 1 shows

the definition of research variables adopted for this

study.

Table 1: Definition of research variables.

S/n

Var.

Name

Scalar

Prop.

Variable

Specific.

Measurement Scale

SEX

Nom.

Sex

1=male, 2=Female

AGE

Inter.

Age of

respondents

1=16-30yrs, 2=31-

45yrs, 3=46-60yrs,

4=above 60 yrs.

MARRY

Nom.

Marital

status

1=Single,

2=Married,

3=Divorced;

4=Widowed

FAITH

Nom.

Religion

1=Traditional;

2=Christianity;

3=Islamic;

4=Others specify.

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OCCUP

Nom.

Occupation

1=farmer;

2=Civil/Public

Servant;

3=Trading/Busine

ss; 4=Artisan

5=Driver;

6=Others Specify

INCOM

Inter.

Monthly

income

1=Below

N30,000;

2=N30,000-

N100,000;

3=N101,000-

N150,000;

4=151,000-

N200,000;

5=Above

N200,000

EDUC

Nom.

Level of

education

1=No formal

education;

2=Primary;

3=Secondary;

4=Post-Secondary.

HHSIZ

Inter.

Household

size.

1=below 5; 2=6-

10; 3=11-15;

4=above 16

LESTA

Inter.

Length of

stay

1=below 10yrs;

2=11-15yrs; 3=16-

20yrs; 4=Above

20 yrs.

10.

NUMW

Nom.

Number of

wives

1=1 wife; 2=2

wives; 3=More

than 2 wives

11.

NUMC

Inter.

Number of

Children

1=1 Child; 2=2-4

Children; 3=More

than 4 Children

Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2019

The Core area was delineated into Data

Delineation areas using the Google image of the

study area as shown in Fig. 2. The projected

population figure for Ado-Ekiti in 2004 was put at

199,753, [12]. About 50% of the city population lives

in the Core Area, [13], while the average family size

in Nigeria is estimated at 7, [6]. Based on the above

data, it implies that there were about 14,650

households in the core area of Ado Ekiti. For this

research, a total sum of 368 households amounting to

2.5% was adopted for questionnaire administration

based on suitability, land area, and homogenous

characteristics permeating the study area (Table 2).

Fig. 2: Data Delineation Areas in the Core

Area of Ado-Ekiti.

Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2019

Table 2: Sampling in Data Delineation Areas

(DDAs) of Ado-Ekiti

S/n

DDA

Total

No. of

bldgs.

Est. No of

H-hold.

(c*5)

2.5% of

H-hold.

(d*

0.025)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Oke Ori

Omi/Isato

346

1730

Igbehin

191

955

Igbole/Atiba

Olu

340

1700

Ogbon

Ado/Ogbon

Oba

220

1100

Irona/Okebola

208

1040

Olokuta/Faji

321

1605

Iro/Agric Olope

182

910

Idofin/Ilaro

269

1345

Ojido/Ijigbo

122

610

10.

Ajibade/Idolofi

192

960

11.

Imayo/Oke-

Age

335

1675

12.

Idemo Inisa

204

1020

Total

2,930

14,650

368

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2019

The household survey research questionnaire was

adopted for this study. It consists of structured

questions traversing the socio-economic

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characteristics of the respondents. Other instruments

employed included the use of direct observation

methods with the aid of cameras to capture sites of

interest.

3 Data Analysis and Discussion of

Results: Data analysis and discussion of results are

as shown in sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.

3.1 Delineating the Core Area of Ado-

Ekiti:

The core of Ado-Ekiti was delimited using the google

image of the study area. The Google image was

loaded in AutoCAD environment, digitized,

georeferenced and corrected for rotational error. The

drafted map in AutoCAD was exported to ArcView

GIS environment where distances and areas were

calculated. From the ArcView analysis, the delimited

core area covers a total land area of 173.647 hectares

with a perimeter distance of 7.327km. The study area

which happens to be the oldest residential portion of

the city, conforms to the general morphology of the

traditional core areas of Yoruba cities, with the major

elements, which include the palace, the king’s market

(Oja-Oba), post office and the community/town hall

among others.

The core area of Ado-Ekiti is an incidental center.

The core was not planned but evolved due to the

concentration of activities around notable

infrastructure at the center. In Yorubaland the King is

known as the Oba. He is the paramount ruler of his

community. Traditionally, the Oba’s palace is usually

located at the center of most traditional cities in

South West, Nigeria. Very close to the Oba’s palace

is the Oba’s market which has traditional tie with the

life of the Oba. During colonial rule, the colonialists

built post offices very close to the Oba’s palace for

security reasons. The community hall is also located

close to the Oba’s palace to ensure a short

commuting distance for the Oba whenever he meets

with the people.

From the ongoing, it is very clear that all other

facilities such as the primary school, banks, police

post, fire stations etc., revolve around the Oba’s

palace. In delineating the core area of Ado-Ekiti, all

these facilities were captured. About 1km around the

Oba’s palace was adopted to achieve the delineation.

Some of the popular streets close to the Oba’s palace

(and within the 1km radius) include the Ogbon Oba

(Oba’s street), Ogbon Ado, Ereguru, Igbehin, Irona,

Ojido, Okebola, Irode, Oke Age, Oke-Oriomi and

Ugbalitere among others. The Google image covering

the study area is as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Google Image of the Core of Ado Ekiti

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork (2019)

3.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics of

Respondents

Table 2 shows the socio-economic characteristics of

respondents in the study area. From Table 2,

cumulatively, the proportion of persons in the

younger age groups is substantially larger (89.7%)

than the proportion in the older age groups (10.3%).

This finding reflects the young age structure of the

Nigerian population and is an indication of a

population with high fertility, [11]. A population that

increases drastically unabated without a

corresponding increase in infrastructure provision

could lead to a slum situation.

It is also obvious from Table 2 that male respondents

constitute about 48.9% of the total number of

respondents while the female respondents constitute

the remaining 51.1%. This finding agrees with the

United Nations World’s Women, [20], that ‘working-

age women in developed and developing countries

are more likely to be poorer than men when they

have dependant children and no partners to contribute

to the household income or when their own income is

non-existent or too low to support the entire family’.

With a higher proportion of women occupying the

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city core, it is obvious that they could be at the

receiving end of the aftermath of the slum crisis. For

instance, they are the one who travel long distances

in search of potable water during the dry seasons,

[13].

The marital status of respondents shows that 53.5%

were married, while 20.7%, 17.4% and 8.4% were

widowed, single and divorced respectively. With the

majority of respondents being married and young, the

rate of procreation could be high and the population

could increase without commensurable increase in

infrastructure development. This development could

trickle down to a full-blown slum situation.

On income level of respondents, Table 2 also shows

that about 57.3% of respondents earn between

₦5,000-₦10,000 per month; while those who earn

slightly above the new National Minimum wage of

₦30,000 per month constitute 10.3% of the total

number of respondents. Cumulatively, over 89.7% of

respondents earn below the controversial New

National Minimum Wage (NNMW) of thirty-

thousand naira (USD66.0). This finding agrees with,

[14], in a similar study on Akure, Ondo State, South-

Western Nigeria, where over 80% of residents were

documented to ‘live below the United Nations

recommended $1.0 per day’. It is obvious that the

income of the people has an impact on their way of

life, quality of housing and infrastructure they can

afford at any point in time. If the tide of poverty is

not checked in the study area, the situation could

grow worse and aggravate to a full-blown slum

situation.

Analysis on occupation shows 52.4% of respondents

are involved in trading/business in the study area.

Other occupations of respondents included farming

(10.6%), public service (17.9%), artisanship (12.0%),

and driving (7.1%). The high percentage of

respondents involved in trading could be as a result

of the core area being the commercial hub of the city.

Trading activities in textiles, agricultural products

and foodstuffs among others are common in the study

area. These activities generate a lot of solid waste

which if not properly managed could decimate the

aesthetic of the study area, and enhance flooding

hazard.

Table 2: Socio-Economic Characteristics of

Respondents (N=368)

Var.

Freq.

Percent

Age of Respondents

16-30yrs

22.6

31-45yrs

138

37.5

46-60yrs

109

29.6

above 60yrs

10.3

Sex of Respondents

Male

180

48.9

Female

188

51.1

Marital Status of Respondents

Single

17.4

Married

197

53.5

Divorced

8.4

Widowed

20.7

Monthly Income Level of Respondents

₦5,000-₦10,000

211

57.3

₦11,000-₦15,000

107

29.1

₦16,000-₦20,000

2.2

₦21,000-₦30,000

1.1

above ₦30,000

10.3

Occupation of Respondents

Farming

10.6

Civil service

17.9

Trading

193

52.4

Artisans

12.0

Driving

7.1

Level of Education of Respondents

No formal

education

24.7

Primary

18.8

Secondary

129

35.1

Post-Secondary

21.5

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2019

On the level of education of respondents, Table 2

also reveals that 24.7% of respondents have no

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formal education; while 18.8%, 35.1% and 21.5%

have primary, secondary and tertiary educational

qualifications respectively. This trend shows that the

majority of respondents are literate and could

understand the basis of the research and could give

appropriate responses making the data capturing

processes valid and reliable. This development in the

level of education also shows that the residents are

aware of the evil of living in a slum condition but,

certain social ties are attracting them to the core area.

Observation shows that one of these social ties could

be inheritance of landed property at the core which is

a source of wealth as they attract high prizes.

Generally, people do not naturally move away from

their source of wealth, hence, perpetual addition to

the core population which exacerbates the slum

situation.

3.3 Length of Stay of Respondents:

Table 3 shows the length of stay of respondents in the

core of Ado-Ekiti. About 36.4% of respondents

established to have stayed in the study area for at

least 10 years. Cumulatively, Table 3 shows that the

majority of respondents (63.6%) have stayed in the

study area for between 11 and 20 years. This trend

shows that the current situation of poverty, poor

housing facilities and poor environmental quality

have tolerated overtime (see Fig. 3) in the study area.

If this condition persists unchecked, a full blown

slum condition is imminent.

Table 3: Length of Stay of Respondents in Core

of Ado-Ekiti

Period (years)

Freq.

Percent

Below 10 yrs

134

36.4

11-15

22.3

16-20yrs

15.8

Above 20yrs

25.5

Total

368

100.0

Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2019

Fig. 3: Typical buildings with eroded foundation

and rustic roofs

Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2019

Fig. 3 shows two photographs: the one on the left

hand side depicts a typical foundation of most

buildings in the core of Ado-Ekiti which had been

eroded due to incessant flooding. The photograph at

the right hand side shows the rustic condition of

roofing materials in the core of Ado-Ekiti. The

roofing materials are corroded and falling off,

confirming the obsoleteness of the buildings. The

inserted arrow in the photograph is pointing to a used

car tyre put in place to hold the roofing sheet from

being blown off by the wind.

3.4 Household Size of Respondents:

According to Haviland (2003), ‘a household consists

of two or more persons who live in the same

dwelling. It may be of a single family or another type

of person group’. Table 4 shows the household size

configuration in the core of Ado-Ekiti.

Table 4: Household Size of Respondents in

CoreArea of Ado-Ekiti

Household Size

Frequency

Percent

below 5 people

140

38.0

5-10 people

202

54.9

11-15 people

6.0

above 16 people

1.1

Total

368

100.0

Source: Author’s Fieldwork, 2019

From Table 4, it is evident that about 54.9% of

respondents have family members between 6-10

people; those with household size below 5 people

constitute about 38.0%. Cumulatively, households

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having family members more than 10 people

constitute about 7.1% of the total number of

respondents. On the average, a typical household in

the study area is (five) 5. This finding corroborates

the NDHS (2003) report that the average household

size in Nigeria is 5 (five). With an average of 7

households in a building (Fasakin, 2001), there would

be an average of 35 persons per building. This

population per building is too high, especially where

most of the buildings do not have toilets and kitchen

facilities and are flooded during the rains (Figs. 4 and

5).

Fig. 4: A Typical flooded building at Irona

Street, Ado-Ekiti

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2019

Fig. 5: A typical kitchen facility at Oke-Age

Area of Ado-Ekiti

Source: Authors’ Fieldwork, 2019

Fig. 4 shows a flooded area at Irona street, Ado Ekiti,

where flooding has led to erosion hazards and

rendered buildings vulnerable to deterioration and

consequent collapse. Figure 5 shows typical kitchens

built with corrugated iron sheets, littering and

polluting the cityscape. Eye witness shows that the

major source of energy for cooking is the firewood,

which generates a lot of smoke that could inhibit the

health of users. The kitchens are usually hot and

stuffy during cooking sessions, thus causing air

pollution. The living housing conditions depicted

above are inimical to health of residents and are the

foundation of slum development.

4. Summary, Conclusion and

Recommendations:

From Google image map analysis, the delineated

Core of Ado-Ekiti covers a total land area of about

9.684 hectares with a building population of 14,650,

housing about 102,550 populations. Empirical

analysis shows that the majority of respondents in the

study area are youths within the age bracket of 31-60

years. The proportion of female respondents (59.1%)

is higher than that of their male counterparts

(48.9%). Over 53.0% of respondents are married;

while 57.3% live on a monthly income of between

20-30 dollars which in most cases is less than 1dollar

per day. The major occupation is trading which is

mostly done by women. The literacy level is high

with 74.4% in that category. Also, the majority of

respondents (63.6%) have lived in the study area for

an average of 11 and 20 years. Generally, the housing

condition is poor and in nauseating environments.

The average household size in the study area is

between 5-10 people who stay in houses without

kitchens and toilets.

From the on-going, it is evident that the majority of

residents in the study area are the active population

requiring better employment opportunities to boost

their economic base. There is a tendency for the

population to increase rapidly due to the high number

of married people and youths; which could further

worsen their condition of living as existing

infrastructural facilities are stressed and without

repair or replacement. Poverty is very potent in the

study area as the majority of respondents do not earn

up to one dollar per day. The high literacy level could

be an advantage in future campaigns for better

housing and living environments.

Based on empirical findings and their planning

implications, it is clear that the link between effective

economic development and city growth is missing in

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the study area. This study therefore recommends that

the state government should as a matter of urgency

declare a state of emergency on infrastructure

provision to curb the development of a full-blown

slum condition. The infrastructure emergency policy

should consider provision of employment

opportunities for the teeming youth population; the

local and state governments need to empower traders

financially to boost their daily income and alleviate

the level of poverty among the people and; the State

Government also need to undergo a systematic urban

renewal projects in the study area to alleviate the

living and environmental conditions of the people.

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DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.36

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