Performance of an electrode topology for alkaline water electrolysis

under specific operating conditions

MARÍA JOSÉ LAVORANTE

Research and Development Division of Renewable Energy

Institution of Scientific and Technological Research for Defense

Juan Bautista de la Salle 4397, Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires Province

ARGENTINA

RODRIGO DIAZ BESSONE

Chemistry Department

Institution of Scientific and Technological Research for Defense

Juan Bautista de la Salle 4397, Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires Province

ARGENTINA

SAMANTA SAIQUITA

Chemistry Department

Institution of Scientific and Technological Research for Defense

Juan Bautista de la Salle 4397, Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires Province

ARGENTINA

RICARDO MARTIN AIELLO

Research and Development Division of Renewable Energy

Institution of Scientific and Technological Research for Defense

Juan Bautista de la Salle 4397, Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires Province

ARGENTINA

ERICA ALEJANDRA RAMÍREZ MARTÍNEZ

Engineer Faculty of the Army Div. Grl. Manuel Nicolás Savio

National Defense University

Av. Cabildo 15, Autonomous City of Buenos Aires

ARGENTINA

Abstract: - Channels were machined over the active area of a 316L stainless steel electrode, in vertical

electrode position, with a width of 5 mm that is reduced to 1 mm and then widened again. For its

construction, electro discharge machining was selected since it also allows obtaining different degrees

of roughness, which can favor the detachment of bubbles to a larger quantity. Analysis of its

performance was carried out at an initial operating temperature of 30 ° C and at seven different distances

between electrodes, namely: 9.45; 7.45; 6.35; 5.80; 4.30; 2.80 and 2.45 in millimeters, in order to

determine the one with the lowest energy consumption to produce a fixed amount of hydrogen. Results

obtained from the evaluated distances show that as the distance between electrodes becomes smaller,

so do the electrical and transport resistances. The percentage increase in the current density for the

distances of 9.45 and 2.45 mm, with respect to the applied potential difference, shows that at 2.2 V, it

is above 80% (in current density) and maintained, with small fluctuations throughout the range of

applied voltages. Therefore, using the same amount of energy, a greater volume of hydrogen is obtained.

Key-Words: - Electrode topology; alkaline water electrolysis; distance between electrodes.

Received: June 17, 2021. Revised: March 13, 2022. Accepted: April 12, 2022. Published: May 7, 2022.

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.15

María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

E-ISSN: 2732-9984

Volume 2, 2022

1 Introduction

The sustainable supply of energy is presented as one

of the main problems of this century. The significant

increase in energy, worldwide, is due to the growth

of population added to the rise in living standards [1].

Fossil fuels, on the other hand, will not be able to

satisfy the growing demand for energy, due to their

inhomogeneous distribution, the fact that the reserves

are being depleted and that fewer and fewer oil fields

are available for their exploitation. This brings as a

consequence, the increase in the price of fuels and

governmental ambiguities with the regions that have

the largest world reserves. Another problem is

directly related to the amount of greenhouse gases

that are generated as a result of their burning, which

contributes to the climate change.

According to the United Nations Conference, which

took place at the end of 2015, in Paris, the net

emissions of carbon dioxide from the energy sector

should be close to zero in 2050, to restrict the increase

of the global average temperature below 1.5 ° C

above pre-industrial level [2]. A change of this

magnitude would require the generation of energy

practically free of carbon dioxide, which would lead

the energy system to rely predominantly on solar and

wind energy [3].

The concept of energy conversion Power-to-X, arises

as a solution to store energy from intermittent

renewable sources as well as to produce carbon-

neutral fuels from carbon dioxide emissions [4-5].

Hydrogen production from electricity produced by a

renewable resource in energy-to-gas conversion

concepts, is promising for future energy storage

systems, as hydrogen offers high energy density (for

example a lower heating value of ≈ 120 kJ/g) and can

be used without generating emissions [6].

The electrolysis of water, which makes use of the

surplus of the renewable resource, is considered a key

process for the production of high purity hydrogen.

As well as being a well-established technology, used

for a long time in various industrial applications, it is

expected that, in the near future, it will occupy an

increasingly prominent place for decentralized

hydrogen production [7].

The electrolysis of water currently must overcome

two major challenges. It must minimize energy losses

and lowered the cost of the equipment. These points

are of vital importance to contribute to the

development of the hydrogen economy since the

percentage of efficiency of the obtention process

would be raised and production costs would decrease.

Although there are many and varied attempts to make

the process more efficient, they could be grouped into

two large categories: reduce energy consumption and

that the energy used is as cheap as possible. Many

researchers have focused their work on improving the

catalytic activities of the electrodes and thereby

reducing the overpotential of the gas evolution

reaction.

However, there is another point, in addition to the

electrode material, which has a preponderant role

above the overpotential that is the effective active

area. Effective active area is linked to the roughness

of the surface and the latter is pre-established by the

preparation/construction of the electrode.

This research work presents the results obtained by

the use of a triangle shaped topology over 316L

stainless steel electrodes, with a certain roughness on

the channel surface and seven different distances

between electrodes. As the method selected for the

construction of the channel, electrical discharge

machining, allows achieving different levels of

roughness, Charmilles 33 (CH33) was the one

selected. Both, the proposed geometry, as well as the

method of construction of the geometry over the

electrode surface, could be applied to another type of

material with a catalytic activity different from the

one proposed.

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.15

María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

E-ISSN: 2732-9984

Volume 2, 2022

2 Materials & Methods

The material used and the procedures carried out are

detailed below.

2.1 Electrode Preparation

To evaluate the effect of the roughness generated on

the surface of the channel, from the proposed

geometry, stainless steel 316L was selected as the

material for the electrodes. Their dimensions are 110

x 110 x 3 millimeters. The electrode surface has two

sectors: the rib, where the material is in its original

state (as it was acquired from the factory) and the

groove (the triangular shaped channel) that has a

particular roughness, obtained by the selected

method of construction: electrical discharge

machining. Fig.1 is an image of the electrode surface.

Fig 1. The electrode with the triangle shaped

topology.

The triangle shaped topology over the electrode

surface is obtained by using electrical discharges.

This process needs two types of electrodes: the tool

and the workpiece. The first one is built of copper

with the specific geometry (used in the electroerosion

machine) and the other is the object of study, the

stainless steel electrode. Recurring current discharges

between these two electrodes, separated by a

dielectric liquid and submitted to an electric voltage

removed material from the workpiece electrode to

generate the desired topology. This is because each

spark behaves as a heat source and as a consequence

increases the local temperature (>3,000°C) for a very

short period of time (from 2 to 100 μs). As a

consequence, the material that is heated above the

melting temperature is eliminated and carried away

by the dielectric fluid [8]. Added to this fact is that

the remaining layers of material will undergo

changes in their microstructural and mechanical

properties [9].

The electro discharge machining is performed on a

Charmilles Form 2-Lc machine (Charmilles

Technologies), and the dielectric fluid is kerosene.

Since surface roughness is a subject of study in this

type of systems, the use of this method allows

obtaining different grades because it has a profile-

meter. The scale is defined in Charmilles “CH”,

which is provided to compare commonly used

standards such as Ra (Europe) – CLA (UK) – AA

(USA). The roughness for the pair of electrodes used

in this work is CH33. Charmilles has designated a CH

scale, which is, however, cross referenced with the

standards that are in common use as roughness

average (arithmetic mean deviation, Ra) [10]. Ra is

obtained by an algorithm that measures the average

length between valleys and peaks and the deviation

from the mean line on the entire surface within the

sampling length [11]. CH33 equivalent to 4.50 [μm]

Ra, exclusively in the channel zone.

After the machining process, it is necessary to

eliminate the impurities left over the electrode

surface applying a cleaning treatment which is

composed of the following steps:

a) Apply an abrasive cleaner (composed by

carbonates, sodium dodecylbenzene and

alkalinizing agent among others).

b) Wash under tap water.

c) Rinse with distilled water, allow to dry.

d) Soak some filter paper with acetone

(Sintorgan® Pro-Analysis), clean the

electrode surface with it and allow the

electrode to dry.

e) Soak some filter paper with ethanol, clean

the electrode surface and allow to dry.

In order to analyze the roughness on the electrode

surface of the channel, a scanning electron

microscope (SEM), Philip SEM 515, is used to

produce high resolution images. Micrographs

obtained are presented in Results and Discussion

section.

2.2 Evaluation Cell

The evaluation cell consists of: a cubic container;

seven pairs of gauges, two guide brackets and two

mobile locks. All pieces are constructed in crystal

acrylic, except for the stainless steel screws, used to

bond and hold some of the mobile pieces.

Since it is intended to study the behavior of this

specific pair of electrodes at different distances

between them, the component of this cell that allows

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.15

María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

E-ISSN: 2732-9984

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establishing distances is the pair of gauges. There are

seven different pairs of gauges, which depending of

their size, allow reaching a certain distance.

The central piece of the evaluation cell, is the cubic

container. Inside it, all the components previously

mentioned are placed as well as the electrolyte, the

electrodes and the physical separator. Zirfon Perl

UTP 500 by Agfa is the material selected as

separator. This material is an open mesh

polyphenylene sulphide fabric, symmetrically coated

with a polymer and zirconium oxide particles [12]

which combine good conductivity with a high bubble

point and good wettability [13]. The cubic container

has in its center and along both walls and base, a

channel to fix the separator in a perfectly parallel and

equidistant position from the electrodes. A 30% w/w

potassium hydroxide (Biopack 85.0%) solution is

used as electrolyte.

As a first step, inside the container, the electrolyte is

placed, then the separator and finally, at both sides of

the separator the pairs of gauges. Before proceeding

with the assembly of the cell, it is necessary to mount

the electrodes with the guide brackets through the use

of stainless-steel screws. The guide brackets have a

notch that allows them to rest on the gauges and act

as support for the electrodes and, allowing the

electrodes to be parallel and equidistant between

them and with respect to separator. Once the

electrode-guide bracket set is assembled, the guide

bracket is positioned over the corresponding gauge.

The function of the mobile blocks is to secure the

position of the guide brackets and the gauges along

the determination, and most importantly, that

throughout the determination the distance between

electrodes is the same.

Once the electrode evaluation cell is assembled the

electrodes are connected directly to the power supply

TDK-Lambda 12,5 V /60 A, by copper wires. After

this operation, the real distance between electrodes is

determined by a caliber, for verification and

registration. It must be taken into consideration that

the distance between electrodes obtained, is the result

of the size of the gauges and the thickness of the

plates used as electrodes. To know more details

about the electrode evaluation cell, it is possible to

consult the manuscripts by Lavorante et. al [14-15].

The analysis of each distance proposed is performed

at least four times, if no unexpected variation of the

results is found. In case this happens, the

determination would be executed 4 extra times, for

the detection of the possible cause and discard the

wrong determinations for the correct analysis of the

results. The analysis includes the calculation of the

standard deviation and the corresponding relative

error. Table 1 shows the operating parameters studied

for the surface finish, CH33.

Table 1. Operating conditions studied: space between

electrodes and temperature.

Temperature

(ºC)

Space between electrodes (mm)

9.45

7.45

6.35

5.80

4.30

2.80

2.45

The initial working temperature of 30 ºC is fixed, in

order to compare the results and the determinations

so, before starting a series, the system is brought to

the defined working temperature, setting the system

into operation. Once the temperature is reached, the

experiment is initiated. The potential difference

varies from 0.1 [V] every 30 seconds along a voltage

applied difference from 0 to 3 [V].

3 Results and Discussion

The following section presents the results obtained.

3.1 Evaluation of the surface area

The electro discharge machining leads to surface

changes that depend specially on the electric energy

converted into heat on the surface of the electrode and

on the machining conditions. As it was mentioned

previously, the electrodes have two well-defined

areas: the ribs and the channels. The surface

morphology in the channel zone of the electrode is

presented below (Fig. 2). At this point it is important

to highlight, that the incorporation of the channels in

the form of opposing triangles increases the area of

the electrode by approximately 16% and that the

surface generated from the machining method has not

been incorporated in that value.

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

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María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

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Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of surface channel zones in

CH33 electrode: a) rougher 100 x and b) smoother 100 x.

Although both zones seem to have the same types of

surface defects (cracks, globules, etc.), the

micrograph of Fig. 2.a., presents more marked

thermal cracks, deposition of resolidified material

than the one in Figure 2.b. The reduction in cracks

distribution on surface defects could be the result of

a modification in the discharge energy and the

decrease of the spark intensity along the machining

process [16].

3.2. Distance between electrodes

Below are the polarization curves that arise as a result

of evaluating the pair of electrodes at different

distances between them (Fig. 3). Authors want to

clarify that since the distances are obtained by

rectified acrylic blocks (gauges), it is difficult to

follow a pattern, different from the one that arises

from the combination of the size of the blocks and the

thickness of the electrodes. Data was divided in two

groups to facilitate the understanding of the

information. The first one comprising values between

10 and 5 millimeters, the second one, values smaller

than 5 millimeters. The standard error was

represented in Fig. 2.a and b.

Fig. 3. Polarization curves per unit area for the analyzed

distances between electrodes: (a) 9.45; 7.45; 6.35 and 5.80,

and (b) 4.30; 2.80 and 2.45 millimeters.

The polarization curves show that for the seven

distances evaluated, the smallest are those with the

highest current densities (2.80 and 2.45 mm). A first

fact to highlight in the behavior of the system is that

in the results obtained with the distances between

9.45 to 5.80 mm, the increase in current density is

gradual (see Fig. 3.a.). For the experiments where

distances between electrodes are smaller, (from 4.30

to 2.45 mm), the increase in current density is more

noticeable (see Fig. 3.b.). The standard error for each

point, which makes up the polarization curves, is

plotted. Although, as the values are so small, it cannot

be appreciated. The obtained average standard

deviation is about 1.23 within the determinations

from 10 to 5 mm and 3.86 from 5 mm. The average

standard errors are approximately 0.60 and 1.93,

respectively.

Given that the system with the best performance is

the one with a distance between electrodes of 2.45

mm, a graphical representation is constructed

showing the percentage of increase in current density

that presents the smallest distance evaluated with

respect to the others. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the

most remarkable improvements appear in greater

distances that separate both electrodes. To give an

example, at an applied voltage difference of 2.3 V, it

reaches a value of approximately 89%. It is up to the

distance between electrodes of 4.30 mm, where the

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improvements of current density reach 54%. From

that distance, the enhancements are not so significant.

Fig. 4. Percentage of increase in current density with

respect to the closest distance evaluated: 2.45 mm

Fig. 5 represents the current density and its increment

at 2.3 V for all the distances analyzed. Here, it can

be seen in more detail that, up to a distance of 4.30

mm between electrodes, the increase in current

density is proportional and after that value, there is a

change in the slope of the straight line. Something

similar occurs with the increase of current density,

where an abrupt change in the behavior is also

obtained at the same distance.

Fig. 5. Current density and percentage of increment for an

applied voltage difference of 2.3 V.

Fig. 6.a. presents the polarization curves of the

furthest and closest distances evaluated. At low

voltages, close to the water decomposition potential,

the differences in current density are not significant,

but as the difference in applied voltage is greater, the

difference gains importance too. In Fig. 6.b., it is

observed how at 2.3 V the increment in current

density reaches a maximum, close to 89%, which is

then partially maintained at higher potentials (≈

83%).

Fig. 6. a) Polarization curves at 9.45 and 2.45 mm of

distances between electrodes and b) percentage of

increment in current density between these distances.

Heat released is the product between the applied

voltage difference and the current density. Therefore,

the heat released by both systems (9.45 and 2.45 mm)

will be discussed. (Fig. 7) At the same current density

it could be observed that the system where the

electrodes are more distant released more heat to

generate an equal amount of hydrogen.

Fig. 7. Heat released as a function of current density for

the 9.45 and 2.45 systems.

The heat release begins to become perceptible above

100 mA/cm2. Below that value and as a consequence

of the amount of hydrogen generated, there does not

seem to be an evolution of any phenomenon that

provides loss of energy in the form of heat. The

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concentration overvoltage and the ohmic loss in the

electrolyte become more relevant for the system

where the distance between electrodes is bigger.

Concentration overvoltage arises from mass transport

processes. Limited mass transport increases the

concentration of products between the electrode and

the electrolyte and consequently reduces the

concentration of reagents. Ohmic losses are the result

of the resistance of various cell components, such as

current collectors and interconnections just to

mention a few, the gas bubbles covering the electrode

surface and the material used as diaphragm. To

overcome the barriers presented by these phenomena,

a higher voltage is required to obtain the same

amount of product and the energy losses result in a

greater amount of heat released, as can be seen in the

graph. As a consequence, higher voltage is required

to obtain the same amount of product and the energy

losses result in a greater amount of heat released.

More research will be conducted to deepen the

understanding of these phenomena in this particular

system.

3.3 Comparison of two electrodes with

different roughness surface.

Two pairs of electrodes with the same topology were

compared in connection with their roughness in order

to see if one of them presented better performance

than the other. One of the electrodes is the one

analyzed previously CH33 with a roughness of 4.50

μm Ra and the other, CH42, has a roughness of 12.6

μm Ra. The study of the microstructure of these

electrodes by scanning electron microscopy (Philips

515) shows that the surface of the electrode with

higher roughness presents more defects, like deeper

and bigger craters, recast (deposition of resolidified

material). As it was previously mentioned, this could

be a consequence of rapid heating and cooling

processes.

Fig. 8. SEM micrographs of two electrodes with different

surface roughness: a) 4.5 μm Ra (100 x); b)12.6 μm Ra

(100 x) [14].

Fig. 9 presents the micrographs of an approach of

specific zone in both electrodes. It can be observed in

more detail that the surface on the electrode with less

roughness is smother with few irregularities and

thermal cracks along the zone analysed (Fig. 9.a). On

the other hand, the micrograph (Fig. 9.b.) obtained

with the electrode with 12.6 μm roughness presents

more irregularities, some of which show deeper

craters and more recast material on its surface. Very

few thermal cracks are observed in this area and they

seem to be more superficial.

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Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of two electrodes with different

surface roughness: a) 4.5 μm Ra (500 x); b)12.6 μm Ra

(500 x) [14].

Subsequently an analysis of the behavior of these

pairs of electrodes will be carried out during the

electrolysis process.

Fig. 10.a presents the polarization curves of these

two pairs of electrodes at different distances

between them. Given there are no experiments at

the same distance, only those which are similar

are represented. This is the reason for

representing two determinations of the same pair

of electrodes CH33. For the electrode with 4.5

μm Ra (CH33) roughness, the distances between

electrodes were 2.8 and 2.45 mm. For the

electrode with 12.6 μm Ra (CH42) roughness,

the distance represented is 2.60 mm [14]. As it

can be seen in the graphical representations, at

low applied voltage differences (˂ 2.3V), the

system with the electrodes with higher

roughness, presents a better performance than

the other. From that potential difference and as

the distances between electrodes get shorter, the

performance of all the system improves. Fig.

10.b represents the extrapolation of the

information presented for the electrode with 4.5

roughness at a distance of 2.60 mm, at lower

voltage, the current density is bigger in the

electrode with higher roughness and at high

voltage, the one which performs better is the

electrode with lower roughness. This behaviour

can be linked to the number of bubbles formed

and the way in which those bubbles detach from

the surface of the electrodes. The bubbles that are

in the vicinity of the electrode are distributed in

two areas: the first are those that cover the

surface of the electrode while the second are

those that rise and disperse in the electrolyte.

From the results it follows that, a more tortuous

surface can favor the detachment of the bubbles,

when the current densities are less than 200

mA/cm2. Above this value and with the

corresponding increase in quantity, the same

tortuosity generates delaying effects on it.

Bubbles are absorbed on electrode surface and as

a consequence act as an electric shield. The

bubbles will alter the current distribution and

isolate the active sites of the ions involved in the

reaction, reducing effective active area.

Fig. 10. Polarization curves at different distances between

electrodes.

4 Conclusion

A pair of electrodes with a roughness of 4.50 μm Ra

(CH33) and with a triangle shape topology were

analyzed. The focus of study was the benefit of

reducing the distance between electrodes.

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The results show that the best performance was

achieved at a distance of 2.45 mm at the initial

operating temperature of 30 °C.

Analyzing the heat released by two specific distances

shows that the system where the distance was 9.45

mm releases more heat to produce the same amount

of hydrogen in comparison with that, with a distance

of 2.45 mm. At 2.3 V an increase in current density

was of approximately 89%.

The result of this work demonstrates that modifying

specific configuration conditions, a greater

production of hydrogen is obtained making use of the

same amount of energy.

In connection with the two roughnesses analyzed, a

more detailed study should be carried out since the

method used to construct the channel is the electro

discharge machining. This method promotes

significant changes on the surface. The dimension

and nature of these changes are determined by the

machining conditions and the heat applied on the

surface generated by the electric energy. These

changes (microstructural, chemical,

microgeometrical, surface integrity and mechanical)

are the ones that have to be studied in the future for

better understanding the behavior of the systems.

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Electrical-DischargeMachining-Processed

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.15

María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

E-ISSN: 2732-9984

106

Volume 2, 2022

Shape-Memory Alloys, Materials, Vol. 13, 2020,

530.

Contribution of individual authors to

the creation of a scientific article

(ghostwriting policy)

Rodrigo Diaz Bessone and Samanta Saiquita carried

out the data curation.

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez has performed the

experiments or data/evidence collection.

Ricardo Martín Aiello carried out the provision of the

resources.

María José Lavorante performed the

conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis,

and the writing, review and editing.

Sources of funding for research

presented in a scientific article or

scientific article itself

Subsidy 03 NAC 024/17 granted to carry out this

research by the Argentinean Ministry of Defense and

the Authorities of the Institute of Scientific and

Technical Research for Defense (CITEDEF).

Disclosure

The manuscript is based on the speech that was

presented at the 7th International Symposium on

Hydrogen Energy, Renewable Energy and Materials

has been held as a virtual conference on ZOOM

(Webinar), on October 22nd 2021.

Acknowledgement

Authors wish to thank the Argentinean Ministry of

Defense and the Authorities of the Institute of

Scientific and Technical Research for Defense

(CITEDEF) for their support through the subsidy 03

NAC 024/17 granted to carry out this research. Our

thanks extend to the National Defense University,

Engineer Faculty of the Army Div. Grl. Manuel

Nicolás Savio for providing the power source used to

carry out the investigations, to the staff of the

CITEDEF’s Prototype Department for the

construction of the evaluated electrodes and to the

staff of CITEDEF’s Solid Research Division for the

SEM micrographs.

Creative Commons Attribution

License 4.0 (Attribution 4.0

International , CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en

_US

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE

DOI: 10.37394/232022.2022.2.15

María José Lavorante, Rodrigo Diaz Bessone,

Samanta Saiquita, Ricardo Martin Aiello,

Erica Alejandra Ramírez Martínez

E-ISSN: 2732-9984

107

Volume 2, 2022