Design, Simulation, and Prototype of an 18-Wheeler Electric Vehicle

with Range Extension using Solar PV and Regenerative Braking

IAN LIM, JARED FAUNI, ETHAN CHEN, LESLY MOUNGANG MBEUMO,

CLARISSA SIMENTAL, JONATHAN VAN ZUYLEN, ARTURO TIERRABLANCA,

HA THU LE*

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona,

Pomona, California 91768,

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

*Corresponding Author

Abstract: – In response to California's initiative to propel the advancement of hybrid and electric vehicles

toward achieving zero emissions, this study undertakes the design of a hybrid 18-wheeler aligning with the

state's stringent standards. The motivation stems from the imperative need to address the research and

development in the domain of hybrid/electric class 8 vehicles, specifically focusing on the pivotal segment of

18-wheelers. The research team developed a realistic theoretical design, verified it using MATLAB Simulink

simulation, and ultimately built a prototype. The truck's novel features, namely, 60% electric power,

regenerative braking, and solar PV for range extension, are included in the design and partially implemented in

the prototype. Two motors, a DC and an AC, are used as the prototype drives where the system control is

mostly automatic. Simulation of the electric 18-wheeler design shows that the model works properly. It follows

the speed command closely while the acceleration and deceleration behaviors are normal. Testing of the

prototype shows that it functions appropriately. The DC motor speed can be regulated over a wide speed range

while the AC motor can run at two different speeds as designed. The prototype microcontroller logic is

followed, ensuring safe operation of the solar PV system and the battery, and effective control of the motors.

Overall, the project succeeded in achieving a harmonious blend of simulation, design, and physical

implementation. It can be used as an engineering and public education tool. Further, by exploring cutting-edge

technologies such as regenerative braking and solar power for truck range extension, the project contributes to

raising vehicle efficiency and finding sustainable transportation solutions, which make the transportation sector

more friendly to the environment.

Key-Words: - Class 8 vehicle, electric vehicle, 18-wheeler, hybrid vehicle, prototype, regenerative braking,

solar PV, truck, zero-emission vehicle.

Received: November 20, 2023. Revised: December 10, 2023. Accepted: December 17, 2023. Published: December 31, 2023.

1 Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) offer multiple benefits

compared to their diesel engine counterparts.

According to the EPA, transportation is responsible

for almost 30% of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions,

[1]. A modern diesel-powered truck releases, on

average, 223 tons of CO2 into the atmosphere every

year, [2]. The improvement of fuel efficiency of

semi-trucks has become stagnant. The average fuel

efficiency of modern trucks is only 6.5MPG. This is

less than 1 MPG better compared to fuel efficiency

in 1973, [3].

Most of the environmental impact that is created

by EVs comes from the manufacturing process. This

issue has been improving in recent years by

lowering the carbon footprint of battery production,

[4]. Transportation companies can also benefit from

the long-term ownership of EVs. The estimated

annual maintenance is 18% to 45% cheaper than

diesel semis and they are often much simpler, [3].

Further, EVs are friendly to the environment and

efficient in terms of energy usage so transition to

EVs can be a cost-effective approach, [5]. Though,

there are obstacles to EV adoption, namely,

insufficient range, high cost, and inadequate

charging infrastructure, [6]. Another challenge that

impedes EV usage is their high power demand,

which can create stresses for their host power

distribution systems, especially in residential areas

where the feeder circuits are weak, [7].

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To solve the EV-related problems, multiple

technologies have been developed to increase the

range and efficiency of electric vehicles, as well as

expand the EV charging infrastructure. One

technology is to use solar PV to charge the car

battery, either when driving or being parked in the

sun. This technology can potentially increase the

vehicle range, reduce their dependence on charging

networks, and lower power demand on the power

grid.

Regenerative braking is another technology that

can help solve EV-related problems, [8], [9]. It

captures some kinetic energy from the car wheels

that would otherwise be lost during braking periods

to run the car's electric machine as a generator to

produce energy. This energy is stored in the battery

for later use which enhances the vehicle's range and

efficiency.

The stress caused by EV high-power demand on

the power grid can be alleviated by building big

solar-powered charging stations at truck stops or

shipping centers. Station and charger can be

regulated by a charging management system where

vehicles are prioritized based on their battery level.

Investigations have also been made into larger 3-

level systems that regulate different clusters of

chargers as well as individual vehicles into different

voltage level groups to minimize impact on the

distribution grid, [10].

Innovative solutions such as smart bi-directional

chargers and making use of propulsion systems for

charging may also help with grid strain in the

coming years, [11]. In addition, the government

plans to expand the grid through the Grid Resilience

and Innovation Partnerships program and has made

available over $3.9 billion towards this goal, [12].

Last but not least, alternative battery materials

are being investigated for EVs, which can replace

lithium ions to some extent. While lithium-ion

batteries are currently the most widely used, they

have limitations in terms of their energy density,

safety, and environmental impact, [13]. Lithium-ion

batteries are fairly expensive and only have a shelf

life of about 15 years before needing to be replaced,

[14]. The search for alternative materials has the

potential to improve the performance and

sustainability of electric vehicles and expand their

popularity even further, [15].

A project that investigates, simulates, and

constructs a practical model of an electric vehicle

with built-in solar charging, regenerative braking,

and an alternative battery material has the potential

to further benefit the current technology found in

electric vehicles, [16]. Given the need to address

fuel efficiency and carbon emission requirements of

large trucks, we aim to design an 18-wheeler, where

its range is extended by solar PV and regenerative

braking. By exploring the potential of these

technologies, our project can contribute to the

development of more efficient, sustainable, and

accessible transportation options. The truck design,

its simulation, and prototyping are described in the

following sections.

2 Truck Engine and Drivetrain

Design and Simulation

While hybrid and fully electric options have been

growing in popularity in recent years due to new

laws and regulations, the current technology is

nowhere near the ambitious standards that places

like California have set in place, [17]. At the heart

of the vehicle is the power train. More specifically,

the engine configuration is the key to achieving

these lofty goals. One of the first features one needs

to determine for a hybrid configuration is the ratio

between the electric motor and combustion engine,

[18].

For this project, we aim to comply with the

California standards and guidelines. California has

only established rough guidelines and target years

for certain percentage sales of zero-emission

vehicles that progressively get stricter. Under the

current Advanced Clean Trucks (ACT) rule, enacted

by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) in

June 2020, 5-9% of class 4-8 trucks sold in the state

must be ZEVs (zero emission vehicles) by 2024.

The CARB hopes to increase the ZEV percentage to

30% by 2030, [19].

These percentages also pertain to hybrid

vehicles, essentially increasing the electric ratio of

the powertrain alongside the outright sales of pure

ZEVs. For class 2 vehicles, such as passenger cars,

hybrids are much more efficient than conventional

vehicles, achieving anywhere from 10 to 15%

increased energy efficiency, [20]. For a class 8

standard 18-wheeler, it is much more difficult to

design and optimize a hybrid/electric setup given

the additional load induced from the cargo of the

semi-trailer, [21]. While class 2 cars can achieve a

decent electric mileage ratio, there is a significant

drop for 18 wheelers.

With the limited offerings on the market at

present, a typical hybrid 18-wheeler could only

achieve 5-7% of electric range. An industry leader,

all-electric Tesla Semi Truck, has its bevy of issues.

Given the 1000-mile-plus range of a standard diesel

semi, which would require a very long charging

time if battery is solely used; hybrid options for

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large trucks are needed to comply with new

standards and regulations, [22].

2.1 Drivetrain Configuration

Following the regulations, we seek to design an

engine that is 60% electric and 40% combustion

engine. To do this, we need to drastically increase

the design capabilities, such as battery capacity and

electric motor power, to ensure the required torque

and horsepower for the huge truck.

The first step to implementing our project was

to create a base vehicle design on which to

implement our design. There are 3 types of

drivetrains for hybrid vehicles. The drivetrain design

determines how the electric motor works in

conjunction with the diesel engine, [23]. This

drivetrain affects the vehicle efficiency and fuel

consumption. The types are Series, Parallel, and

Series Parallel, [24]. We decided to start with the

Series design because it is the simplest hybrid

configuration, which will simplify our intended

computer-based simulation. In a series hybrid, the

electric motor is the only means of providing power

to the wheels. The Diesel engine provides partial

power to the Electric motor and a large battery bank

provides the remaining power that it needs. Figure 1

illustrates this design.

As said, the series configuration was chosen as

our initial design for the drivetrain, as it was the

simplest hybrid configuration. Choosing between a

series and parallel configuration for a hybrid vehicle

involves trade-offs that impact performance,

efficiency, and complexity. Series configurations,

characterized by an electric motor as the sole power

source to the wheels, are more efficient than internal

combustion engines in traffic conditions where the

vehicles have frequent stops and restarts. A series

configuration can switch between battery and engine

power, conserving the engine for more efficient

situations. However, the series configuration

requires a larger battery and electric motor, along

with a generator, making them more costly

compared to parallel drivetrains.

In contrast, parallel configurations use both the

engine and electric motor collaboratively,

eliminating the inefficiencies of power conversion

seen in series hybrids. This makes a parallel

configuration more efficient on highways, but there

is less efficiency in stop-and-go traffic conditions.

Parallel hybrid design would require a smaller

battery, relying on regenerative braking and the

motor acting as a generator for recharging. We

selected a Parallel hybrid drivetrain (Figure 2) for

our truck design and simulation.

2.2 Specifications

Our Parallel hybrid design is based on a 40% diesel

and 60% Electric Hybrid ratio. The following

assumptions were made based on current semi-truck

standards to calculate the motor size, battery size,

and other specifications, [25]:

 Total Horsepower ≥ 500hp ≈ 373kW

 Average RPM = 1500 rpm

 Efficiency of the Electric motor = 75%

 5-hour battery power

Fig. 1: Series hybrid drivetrain configuration, [26]

Fig. 2: Parallel hybrid drivetrain configuration, [26]

The truck's required torque must be at least

373kW or 500hp so the final power is designed to

be 400kW, [27]. The diesel engine and the battery

must be able to supply 40% and 60% of the truck's

total power demand, respectively. Therefore, the

diesel engine supplies a torque equivalent to

160kW, and the battery capacity needed to power

the electric motor is 240kWh for 1 hour or

1200kWh for 5 hours.

2.3 Simulation of truck design

To explore the behavior of our truck design, we

simulate it using MATLAB Simulink. The blocks

used to represent the truck components are taken

from the Simscape library. Figure 3 shows the basic

architecture of a parallel hybrid transmission

system, [28], which is implemented in Simulink for

simulation. Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6 shows

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some simulation results. Individual components and

parameters are provided in Figures A1, A2, A3, A4,

A5, A6, A7, A8, A9 and A10 in Appendix.

Fig. 3: MATLAB Simulink based truck model for simulation

(Individual components and parameters are provided in Appendix)

Fig. 4: Power output of battery and combustion engine in Scenario 1

(The truck model follows the speed command in Figure 7. The battery provides

more power during the vehicle acceleration (around 22s) while the combustion

engine is used to deliver the power required to maintain the desired speed. The

power output of the battery and the engine is flat when the vehicle speed is constant)

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Fig. 5: State of charge of the battery

Fig. 6: Output of the DC-DC converter

2.3.1 Electrical System Parameters and Setting

Simulation setting: The simulation works by

applying electrical power from the battery in parallel

with the combustion engine, i.e., the battery drives

the electric motor. The motor then applies electrical

torque at the wheel axle, but it could also be applied

to the engine flywheel. In this simulation, the

vehicle accelerates, maintains the desired speed, and

then decelerates back to zero or a predetermined

speed. The power management control uses only

electrical power to affect the maneuver while the

combustion engine is only used to deliver the power

required to maintain the desired speed.

Motor and Drive block: Parameters for this block

are shown in Figure A10 in the Appendix. The

maximum power of the electric motor is 240kW and

the speed is 1500rpm. The Motor and Drive block

incorporate initial losses through a first-order model,

factoring in overall efficiency tied to a specified

speed and torque input.

The parameters (motor and drive overall

efficiency, speed for efficiency measurement, and

torque for efficiency measurement) determine the

efficiency characteristics. Utilizing this speed and

torque data, the block constructs a torque-speed

envelope that caps the input torque. This capped

value dictates the torque the motor interacts with,

termed τelec, and guides the computation of

electrical losses within the system.

Battery block: The battery state of charge (SOC) can

be seen in Figure 5. The power of the block is

calculated using the basic power formula in [29].

During the simulation, the maximum power output

of the battery is 37 kW which occurs at the point

where the vehicle switches from acceleration to

deceleration at time t= 20 sec. The power usage

remains constant from the time the vehicle is idle.

A calculation block (not shown in Figure 3)

takes the signal produced from the voltage sensor

and current sensor to calculate the power usage,

charge, and power loss of the battery.

Battery capacity refers to the overall quantity of

electrical charge produced through electrochemical

reactions within the battery and is typically denoted

in terms of its capacity measured in ampere-hours

(Ah). The capacity rating indicates how much

charge the battery can hold and deliver over a

certain period, [30].

The SOC represents the amount of remaining

power in a battery relative to its total rated power

that can be discharged under specific conditions and

at a specified rate. The effect of the environment is

not considered in the discharge capacity of the

battery. The charge/discharge efficiency of a battery

provides limited insight into actual efficiency, [31].

Ideal Transformer and DC-DC Converter: The ideal

transformer block models an ideal power-

conserving transformer that can represent a solid-

state DC-DC converter, [32]. Utilizing a transformer

becomes advantageous when a substantial step-up or

step-down conversion ratio is needed. The careful

selection of the transformer turns ratio enables more

efficient optimization of the converter. By precisely

choosing this ratio, it becomes possible to minimize

the voltage or current pressures experienced by the

transistors and diodes within the system. This

minimization of stress leads to enhanced efficiency

and decreased costs in the overall setup. The DC-

DC converter is used to step down the battery

voltage from 515 V to 203.8 V. From the output in

Figure 6, we can see that the DC-DC converter

works properly with zero ripples.

Strategy block: It converts the vehicle speed from

kilometers per hour to rotations per minute. The

engine throttle demand is calibrated to ensure that,

during startup, the combustion engine supplies the

minimum necessary power to maintain the vehicle's

constant speed. Consequently, at this point, the

battery power remains nearly depleted.

Simultaneously, the motor RPM demand is

synchronized to mirror the speed requested for the

vehicle.

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2.3.2 Mechanical System Parameters and Setting

Engine block: The diesel engine is represented using

Simscape “Generic Engine” block (Annotated as

“Engine” in Figure 3). This “Generic Engine”

represents an internal combustion engine of either

spark-ignition or diesel type. The engine parameters

for simulation are shown in Figure A7 of the

Appendix. We utilize a throttle signal to drive the

engine. A throttle signal suits our needs better given

its simplicity. It represents driver input which is

more intuitive considering a driver trying to reach a

certain output power level. It is also much easier to

tune but can offer less direct control of the system

given that it is reliant on the engine’s response to

throttle input.

The engine block calculates power demand

based on this throttle in conjunction with engine

speed. Since we can set different engine types, spark

ignition, and diesel have their unique coefficients to

use as the model is predicated on a third-order

polynomial. The coefficients utilized define peak

power and torque.

Vehicle Body block: For our parallel configuration,

we attach the engine to the tangible vehicle body

(Green “Vehicle Body” block in Figure 3) via a

gearbox (transmission). This enables us to manage

torque, and speed, and provide additional

functionality such as reverse operation of the

vehicle.

As far as mechanical factors are concerned, the

gearbox block enforces a fixed rotation ratio

between the base gear (B) and the follower gear (F).

This ratio can be altered based on whether one

wants them to follow the same direction for rotation.

For this project, we have them rotate in the same

direction.

The Vehicle Body block encompasses the tires

and the truck's physical body. According to the

California Department of Transportation, the

maximum allowed weight of a class 8-18-wheeler is

80,000 pounds (approximately 36,287 kg), [33]. The

complete body parameters are shown in Figure A8

of the Appendix.

The tire block emulates a tire via a “magic

formula” of MATLAB that is based on empirical

data using four coefficients to describe tire behavior.

The model considers factors such as the

“longitudinal” direction of the tire. In other words,

the direction in which the tire rolls (in our case,

forward only). The simulation has the capacity for

more realism as one can implement properties such

as compliance (tire flexion), inertia, rolling

resistance, and much more. For this simulation

purposes, the default settings suffice.

2.3.3 Simulation Scenarios and Results

Scenario 1:

In this scenario we ran the powertrain model with a

simple acceleration, stop, and deceleration, as

shown in Figure A5 of Appendix. The scenario

follows the approximate weight of a semi-truck of

16,000kg without a load, [34]. The speed behavior

of the truck model is presented in Figure 7. The

power supplied by the engine and the battery is

shown in Figure 4.

From Figure 7, it took approximately 15

seconds for the vehicle to reach 100 kph (62 mph).

The time it takes for an 18-wheeler to accelerate to

60 mph or decelerate to 0 mph from 60 mph can

vary based on several factors such as the truck's

weight, engine power, road conditions, and driver

behavior.

Generally, a fully loaded 18-wheeler truck

might take around 30-60 seconds to accelerate from

0 to 60 mph under normal driving conditions. When

it comes to deceleration, again, it depends on

various factors including braking system efficiency,

road conditions, and the driver's braking habits.

Decelerating from 60 mph to 0 mph might take a

similar amount of time, typically around 30-60

seconds under controlled braking, [35].

The acceleration time of the truck model (15s

from zero to 62mph) may be explained by the fact

that it has no load. Figure 7 also shows that the truck

model follows the speed command closely.

Fig. 7: Truck speed behavior for Scenario 1

Red solid =Vehicle body; Blue dotted= Speed command

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Fig. 8: Truck speed under highway conditions

Red solid =Vehicle body; Blue dotted= Speed command

Scenario 2:

The second simulation scenario follows the speed

command for highway conditions in Figure A6 of

the Appendix. It uses the approximate weight of a

semi-truck of 16,000 kg without a load. The speed

behavior of the truck model is shown in Figure 8.

From Figure 8, it took approximately 10

seconds for the vehicle to reach 80 kph (49 mph).

Next, the vehicle stops accelerating and then

accelerates to 100 kph or 62 mph before beginning

deceleration. Again, the truck model follows the

speed command closely.

Overall, the simulation results show that the

truck model behaves appropriately.

3 Regenerative Braking

3.1 Background

Regenerative braking is a mechanism used in many

vehicles to recover the energy that would otherwise

be lost during braking. When a vehicle equipped

with a regenerative braking system decelerates or

brakes, the electric motor functions as a generator

and converts the kinetic energy of the vehicle into

electrical energy to charge its battery, [36].

The electrical machine then transitions back to

motor mode when the driver accelerates the vehicle.

Regenerative braking is commonly used in hybrid

vehicles, electric vehicles, and some electric

bicycles.

Nowadays, the automotive industry is utilizing

new electrical systems more than ever to offer

advantages such as energy efficiency, improved

range, and integration of more sustainable and

environmentally friendly transportation systems.

This is strongly influenced by the EPA’s proposal

“to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from heavy-

duty vehicles by 2027”, [37].

Fig. 9: Regenerative braking diagram, [38]

The implementation of regenerative braking has

greatly increased the fuel economy of any vehicle

that is integrated with the braking system. For

example, the braking system “can reduce the wasted

energy up to 8%-25%,” resulting in greater mileage

for the car, [39]. Notably, the focus is directed

toward alternatives that will reduce gas emissions

and obtain longer mile ranges. A regenerative

braking diagram is shown in Figure 9.

3.2 Specification

With the growing technology and the government

desire to push for a greener society, the

implementation of these systems is optimal for

automotive. In the proposition of an idea, due to

semi-trucks often carrying substantial loads and

covering long distances, resulting in significant

energy expenditure during braking, the development

of a fuel-economic semi-truck would be of great

benefit in reducing fuel consumption and emissions.

As stated earlier, a semi-truck must have a

maximum load of 80,000lbs (about 36287kg).

Therefore, there is a great amount of wasted energy

from the numerous extra trips semi-trucks travel

around the country. When put into the application,

the following parameters need to be considered:

a) Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy, KE, of a

moving vehicle which estimates the amount of

energy available for recovery during braking,

which depends on the vehicle weight, m, and its

speed, v, squared, [40].

(1)

b) Energy conversion efficiency: The energy

conversion efficiency determines how

effectively the kinetic energy is converted into

electrical energy and stored in the battery. It is

calculated as the ratio of the electrical energy

output to the kinetic energy input, expressed as

a percentage, [41].

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(2)

c) Energy storage capacity: The energy storage

capacity of the battery determines the amount of

electrical energy that can be stored for later use.

It is typically measured in kilowatt-hours

(kWh). This estimates the potential amount of

energy that can be stored during regenerative

braking, [42].

(3)

However, it is important to note that the actual

amount of energy recovered through regenerative

braking depends on various factors, such as the

efficiency of the regenerative braking system, the

driving conditions, the driver braking behavior, and

the overall design and engineering of the vehicle.

The system is best at use in larger speed

differences rather than small ones (one being stop

and go traffic). Additionally, the efficiency rate of

conversion from system to battery, shown by

simulation of a “hydraulic hybrid system under mild

braking” is 36.93% and 25.28%, [9]. Thus,

regenerative braking is very situational and relies on

the driver for its full capability in decisions of

coasting versus regeneration; although if utilized

properly such as in modes of downhill driving, the

regeneration amount may be large.

Overall, regenerative braking is a great

component in the right direction in increasing MPG

or MPGe but is not the main power source of the

system. Every semi-truck with the capability to

regenerate a large portion from their long mileage

trips back will result in longer mileage.

3.3 Representation of Regenerative Braking

For emulating regenerative braking power to the

entire hybrid semi-truck system, the level of logic is

displayed at a high level. The energy captured in the

regenerative braking mode from the semi-truck is

modeled through an external power source. An

external power source is a battery block model on

Simulink that is set at a constant energy level and

consists of two output logic states.

The battery model will enter either the

dissipation state where it begins feeding energy to

the electric motor or a neutral state where the battery

is not dissipating at all. These states are monitored

by the overall control system of the semi-truck.

4 Solar PV System for Increasing the

Range of the Truck Model

4.1 Background and Sizing

In recent years, as the efficiency of solar panels

increases and the cost of renewable energy goes

down, there have been attempts to utilize this

technology for more applications, [43]. One such

application is that of a solar-powered vehicle or a

vehicle utilizing solar. While solar power has not

been able to provide enough energy to power an

entire modern electric car, they have been

implemented in charging stations and within

vehicles to assist in power generation, [16]. Solar

power has been utilized in small-scale experimental

designs such as solar-powered golf carts and small

town-cars for short-distance residential and

recreational travel, [44].

Semi-trucks are an important part of the

transportation industry and utilize large containers

to transport their cargo; these containers can be up

to 8 feet tall, 8 feet wide, and 53 feet long making

them prime real estate for a large solar array, [34].

For our truck design, 320W Residential

Monocrystalline solar panels were used for

calculations and simulation. These solar panels

provide a solar cell efficiency of 21% and are

relatively light compared to the truck and cargo,

weighing only 39.7 pounds for a panel 65 inches tall

and 40 inches long, [45]. The size of the trailer

allows for 18 panels, in two rows of 9, to be placed

on each side of the container giving a total power

rating of 17.28kW across the 54 panels.

The irradiance received, and thus the output of a

solar panel is highly dependent on its topographical

location and the weather conditions around it as well

as its orientation, [46]. For initial design and

calculation, the State of California was used for

determining solar resources. On average, throughout

the year, California receives about 5.38 peak sun

hours or around 5380 Whm2 per day, [47]. The total

kWh energy output of the panels is derived from the

equation in [46]:

E=ArHPR (4)

where:

A is the area of the panel(m2),

r is the solar panel yield or module efficiency

(%),

H is the average solar irradiation on the panels

(kWh/m2), and PR is the performance ratio or

coefficient for losses, [46].

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The result of this equation gives the energy

output of each panel at its optimal tilt angle for

maximizing annual energy output, which is equal to

the latitude of the location where the panel is placed.

However, the panels on the semi-trailer are stuck at

a fixed angle of either 0° on the top or 90° on the

sides.

Using data from the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory System Advisor Model (SAM), the

panels on the top of the trailer experience a 12-13%

loss in energy output while the panels on the sides

experience a 20-80% loss in performance depending

on their orientation, [47]. Panels facing north

receive very little direct sunlight and mostly rely on

diffuse radiation to generate energy. If the semi-

truck drives east-west an equal amount that it drives

north-south the total average output of all the solar

panels is around 65.9kWh, peaking during the

summer months.

The amount of energy generated by the solar

panels is not enough to charge the vehicle on its

own but can be used to extend range as well as

provide power to auxiliary systems such as the

trailer lift or refrigeration. The output voltage of

each chosen solar panel is around 33 volts and needs

to be increased to a value sufficient to charge the

vehicle battery, [45]. There are a total of 54 panels,

18 on each side in 6 rows of 9. Each row is

connected in series to the row next to it and then

connected in parallel to the other sides, providing a

total dc voltage of around 594V, enough to charge

the battery.

4.2 Simulation of Solar PV System Design

System representation and simulation setting

We simulate the basic setup of our solar PV system

using MATLAB Simulink Simscape toolbox. To

simulate the solar panels on the truck we used the

relatively simple “PV Array” block. The model of a

PV cell used in the array is shown in Figure 10. This

block implements a specified array of photovoltaic

modules and outputs a five-element vector of

measurements into a display block given input

irradiance and temperature. The irradiance was set

to 5380 W/m2 and the temperature was set to 25°C

per standard test conditions as a good approximation

of the area where the panels will be placed.

The MATLAB Simulink implementation of the

truck solar system design for testing is shown in

Figure A11 of Appendix.

Fig. 10: Solar PV cell model, [48]

Fig. 11: Complete system block diagram with

parallel hybrid drive train configuration

Various parameters are specified within the

block such as the number of cells, the optimum

operating voltage (Vmp), and the open circuit

voltage (Voc). These parameters were obtained from

the manufacturer datasheet for the specified panels

being tested, [45]. Lastly, the number of modules

connected in series per string and the number of

parallel strings is specified. With just these two

parameters it is not possible to set up a more

complicated system, so we still use the 18 modules

on each side of the trailer that are connected in

series strings before all three strings are connected

in parallel.

Results

Using the above parameters the solar model

produces an output of 652.7V and 105.2kW dc.

After factoring in the loss in performance from the

suboptimal orientation of the panels (an average of

39% across the 3 sides) we obtain a power output of

63.82kWh, which is slightly lower than the

estimated 65.9kWh from the theoretical

calculations. However, the result shows that the

simulated model closely imitates the designed solar

systems.

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5 Complete 18-wheeler Hybrid

Electric Vehicle Design

Figure 11 represents a block diagram of the entire

vehicle system. Starting with the solar charging of

the vehicle, when sunlight falls on the solar panels,

they generate electrical energy. The electrical

energy produced by the solar panels is sent to the

battery through the charge controller unit.

A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is a

charge controller unit that regulates the charging

process of the energy storage system, such as

batteries. It optimizes the charging parameters to

ensure efficient and safe charging. This includes

monitoring the battery voltage and current levels, as

well as temperature, and adjusting the charging rate

accordingly, [49]. The charge controller unit

prevents overcharging or undercharging, which can

degrade battery life or affect performance, [50].

Power from the panels is dependent on its

voltage and the current drawn from the panel. As

more current gets drawn, the voltage provided will

decrease, and the current-voltage (I-V) curve for a

solar panel and other power sources is nonlinear.

Due to factors affecting the energy input like

temperature and weather, the maximum power point

would constantly change. A simple charge controller

is implemented for our truck design rather than a

more complicated MPPT for cost and safety

reasons. There is a DC-to-DC conversion that takes

place in the charge controller to regulate the voltage

and current going into the battery, [51].

The energy storage system, now charged with

solar energy, acts as a reservoir of electrical energy.

When needed, the electrical energy from the energy

storage system is sent to the electric motor. The

electric motor converts the electrical energy back

into mechanical power, which is used to drive the

wheels of the vehicle and provide propulsion.

One of the main components of an electric

vehicle system is the inverter, located between the

battery and the electric motor. Its primary function

is to convert the DC electrical energy from the

battery into AC electrical energy and control the

electric motor speed. In our system we implement a

bi-directional converter that can run the AC motor

as well as turn AC power from regenerative braking

into DC to charge the battery, [52].

Moving on to the powertrain and regenerative

braking system, when the parallel hybrid vehicle is

in operation, the internal combustion engine

generates mechanical power. This power is

independent of the electrical power produced by the

electric generator. Both the mechanical power and

the electrical power are combined in a gear system

to drive a motor and the wheels.

Regenerative braking helps to recharge the

batteries and improve overall efficiency. A power

split device is utilized to facilitate the conversion of

mechanical energy from the wheels into electrical

energy during braking. During deceleration or

braking, the electric motor functions as a generator

and converts some of the kinetic energy of the

vehicle into electrical energy, which is then stored in

the battery.

Fig. 12: Block diagram for 18-wheeler hybrid EV prototype (series hybrid drivetrain configuration)

(List of components and specifications are provided in Appendix)

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6 Prototype of 18-wheeler Hybrid

Electric Vehicle

6.1 Prototype Description and Parameters

Because it is difficult to find a physical gearbox and

a diesel engine (Figure 3) we chose to build a

prototype using the hybrid series drivetrain, which

can be seen in Figure A12 of Appendix.

The prototype block diagram is shown in Figure

12 where small-size components are used to build

the truck model. The battery is connected to a

microcontroller that monitors its state of charge and

controls various relays for charging and outputting

power to the motors. The solar system is represented

by a single small solar panel that charges the battery

via a charge controller. There are two electrical

motors (one is AC and the other is DC) which drive

two separate wheels. Their speed is controlled by

two separate drives (PWM and Variable Frequency

Drive-VFD). The AC motor can be run at two

different speeds, one is controlled by the inverter

frequency and the other is controlled by the VFD. A

DC power supply is used to represent the power

regained from regenerative braking and the power

generated by the diesel engine in the series

drivetrain configuration.

The DC motor speed is controlled by a pulse-

width modulator (PMW) drive. The PWM takes the

battery's constant voltage and outputs it into a

square pulse waveform, alternating between

intervals of no voltage and the maximum of the

input voltage. A potentiometer controls the wave’s

duty cycle, determining how long the output voltage

is set high or low for each period. Higher duty

cycles result in higher average output voltage which

yields higher DC motor speeds. There is a switch

that can reverse the motor’s rotational direction by

inverting the polarity of the voltage supplied to the

motor’s terminals.

Using a digital tachometer, the maximum speed

of the DC motor was recorded as roughly 400 RPM.

Its speed can be adjusted incrementally down to 0

RPM manually by turning a knob off its PMW

drive.

A pure sine wave inverter (Figure 12) takes the

battery 12-V DC and outputs 120 VAC at 60 Hz.

Terminals of the battery are connected to alligator

clips on a wire that connects into the input terminals

of the inverter with banana plugs. The AC voltage is

taken from the inverter’s AC socket with a power

cord. Since there is a 120-V voltage present, the AC

signal needs to be enclosed in an electrical-insulated

junction box. The power cord is secured to a

contactor in the metal enclosure to avoid injury from

electrical shocks and to protect the connections. The

hot and neutral wires from the power cord are

connected to the two-pole contactor that is normally

closed and allows control of the output.

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is only

dependent on the number of magnetic poles it has

and the frequency of its power supply. Since the

number of poles in the motor cannot be feasibly

altered, the most optimal way to change the speed of

our AC motor (Figure 12) is to change the

frequency of the voltage supplied to it. A variable

frequency drive (VFD) is the device used to change

the 120-V, 60-Hz AC signal into another frequency

and voltage while keeping the frequency-voltage

ratio the same. We could output a 100-VAC signal

at 50 Hz since the output cannot have a higher

voltage than the available input. This way, the AC

motor can be run at two different speeds.

The physical implementation of the prototype is

shown in Figure 13. Its components and

specifications are provided in Table 1, Table 2 and

Table 3 of the Appendix.

6.2 Software in Prototype

In implementing the different states of the physical

system, code logic was programmed into an

Arduino Uno R3 microcontroller. The logic flow

chart is shown in Figure 14. The relay wiring

diagram is provided in Figure 15. The complete

code of the microcontroller is provided in Appendix.

The integration of the code in the

microcontroller allows the system to automatically

determine when to charge or not to charge the

battery to prevent over-charging and over-

discharging, as well as to operate the motors

according to the defined logic.

The basic logic flow for the microcontroller

where pieces of the code are taken from a project on

a solar tent designed for outdoor living that also

implements a state of charge sensor for its battery,

[53].

When the microcontroller reads the battery

voltage the code then calculates for state of charge

(SOC). A voltage divider segments the battery

voltage for the microcontroller. ADC reads 0-5V (0-

1024 values), correlated with the battery discharge

curve in Figure A13. At 13.8V, ADC 900 means

100% SOC. Mapping, done without load, faces

accuracy challenges under load or while charging,

with a ±5% error. Non-linear discharge curves

complicate precision.

These calculations are then displayed on the

LCD screen. From this SOC calculation, if the SOC

is below a certain threshold of 30% the system is not

allowed to run. Otherwise, the system will continue

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with the system logic. The logic then proceeds to a

switch that determines how fast the rotation of the

AC motor will be. When the switch logic is high,

the AC motor’s rotation is at 50Hz, while toggled

off it is at 60Hz. Several LED are used to indicate

different operation conditions of the prototype.

6.3 Testing of Prototype

Testing shows that the prototype works properly.

The AC motor can be run at two different speeds

while the DC motor speed can be regulated. Figure

16 and Figure 17 show the supply voltage to the DC

motor at 90% and 100% speed.

The transitions of the microcontroller logic

(Figure 14) are verified by artificial changing of the

battery SOC. These tests show that the transitions

follow the defined logic, as shown by the LED

indicators.

6.4 Project Cost

In total, around $835 USD was put into creating the

physical model with $580 spent on the final design

components and the rest spent on components that

either were not implemented or did not work as

intended. In addition, a truck model (Yellow, Figure

13) was purchased for $80, but this was purely for

representational and aesthetic purposes. The full list

of parts and costs is provided in Table 1 of the

Appendix.

Fig. 13: Prototype of 18-wheeler hybrid electric vehicle

Fig. 14: Microcontroller logic flow

Fig. 15: Microcontroller and relay wiring diagram

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Fig. 16: Supply voltage for DC motor at 90% speed

Fig. 17: Supply voltage for DC motor at 50% speed

6.5 Troubleshooting and Lessons Learned

Technical rectification

The initial design of the project followed a series of

hybrid drivetrain configurations, but throughout

simulation a parallel configuration was chosen.

However, for implementation of the prototype we

had to use the series hybrid drivetrain configuration

due to difficulty in finding a suitable physical diesel

engine and a gearbox.

The project required multiple tests and changes

for all the components to function entirely. The

complications occurred mainly in the components

connected to the AC motor. Commonly during

testing, parts such as the variable frequency drive

(VFD) would not function properly. A multimeter is

used to find where in the line any issues would

occur.

After many tests, inconsistencies in the

variable frequency drive operating resulted from

loose connections in the contactor. We resolved this

issue by screwing down all wires going in and out of

the contactor to provide more reliable contacts for

the VFD to be powered.

Another common problem is that the AC motor

would not operate smoothly at different speeds. We

tested the AC motor to be supplied over a range of

different frequencies and could not get the motor to

run smoothly or at all at times. We decided to run

the motor’s alternate speed with a supply frequency

of 50 HZ at 100 volts to maintain the voltage-

frequency ratio constant while not deviating far

from the rated 60 Hz to avoid burning the motor

while still controlling its speed.

Various control changes were also made to

better facilitate the desired function. The

microcontroller monitors the SOC in the battery and

controls whether power can be output to the motors

or not. When the battery power reached near the

threshold of turning the motors off it would

constantly flip on and off due to the slight

inaccuracy of the sensor and noise voltages. This

issue was fixed by adding a longer delay between

SOC checks so that it would only turn off/on if the

voltage was constant over a relatively long period.

A switch was also added to control the speed of the

AC motor to make it more stable and more like the

pedal in a car.

The initial design of the physical prototype did

not include enough safety measures and controls

such as the use of relays and the junction box for the

AC signal. Initially, some 18-awg wire was used for

some connections which could have caused injury

and connection failure as wires overheated or melted

so this wire was changed to 14-awg later in the

project. Some parts like the VFD did not work well

initially and had to be troubleshooted and limited in

function to perform the desired task. Better quality

VFDs were cost-prohibitive as were larger motors

and controllers.

Teamwork experience

Throughout our project teamwork and the separation

of duties were imperative to hitting the appropriate

deadlines where one team working on the

simulation and another working on the physical

implementation. In large teams, it is often difficult

to get everyone on the same page and to work in

large groups that fit everyone’s schedules. Working

in small parts, keeping regular notes, and bringing

the parts together once each is complete are

important steps in working on a team. It is also

important to ask for and accept any genuine

critiques and feedback about a design or

implementation to make it better.

7 Conclusion

In the pursuit of creating an innovative hybrid semi-

truck (18-wheeler) model, this project integrates

simulation and physical implementation, providing a

comprehensive exploration of the system's design,

functionality, and performance. The hybrid semi-

truck model is conceived with a focus on enhancing

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range and energy efficiency by utilizing

regenerative braking, solar power, and a

microcontroller-based control system. The project

outcomes are summarized as follows.

a) The novel features of the truck design include

using 60% electric power and only 40% diesel,

and range extension using regenerative braking

and solar PV, which is partially implemented in

the prototype.

b) Simulation of the electric 18-wheeler design

using MATLAB Simulink shows that the model

works properly. It follows the speed command

closely. Its acceleration and deceleration

behaviors are normal and its acceleration time is

reasonable.

c) The truck prototype, constructed with a DC

motor and an AC motor as the vehicle drives,

presented a real-world embodiment of the

simulated design. The prototype control is

mostly automatic, which is performed by a

microcontroller, motor speed drives, and

multiple relays.

d) Testing of the prototype shows that it functions

accurately. The DC motor speed can be

regulated over a wide speed range while the AC

motor can run at two different speeds as

designed. The microcontroller logic is followed,

ensuring the safe operation of the solar PV

system, the battery, and appropriate control of

the motors.

Overall, the hybrid semi-truck project succeeded

in achieving a harmonious blend of simulation,

design, and physical implementation. It can be used

as an engineering and public education tool on

electric vehicle subject. Furthermore, by exploring

cutting-edge technologies such as regenerative

braking and solar power for truck range extension,

the project contributes to enhancing vehicle

efficiency and finding sustainable transportation

solutions, which make the transportation sector

friendlier to the environment.

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Emissions from Commercial Trucks &

Buses." EPA, 2023.

[38] Y. Xiong, Q. Yu, S. Yan, and X. Liu, "An

Innovative Design of Decoupled

Regenerative Braking System for Electric

City Bus Based on Chinese Typical Urban

Driving Cycle," Mathematical Problems in

Engineering, vol. 2020, p. 8149383,

2020/07/18 2020, doi:

10.1155/2020/8149383.

[39] F. Wang, X. Yin, H. Luo, and Y. Huang, "A

Series Regenerative Braking Control

Strategy Based on Hybrid-Power," in 2012

International Conference on Computer

Distributed Control and Intelligent

Environmental Monitoring, 5-6 March 2012

2012, pp. 65-69, doi:

10.1109/CDCIEM.2012.22.

[40] K. Nice, "How Force, Power, Torque and

Energy Work", [Online].

https://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-

parts/towing/towing-

capacity/information/fpte9.htm (Accessed

Date: November 20, 2023).

[41] "Efficiency", Energy Education, [Online].

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Eff

iciency (Accessed Date: November 15,

2023).

[42] pveducation.org, "Battery Capacity",

[Online].

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/batte

ry-characteristics/battery-capacity

(Accessed Date: November 15, 2023).

[43] Renogy, "How Solar Panels and Solar

Energy Have Evolved Over the Past 5

Years", 2022, [Online].

https://www.renogy.com/blog/how-solar-

panels-and-solar-energy-have-evolved-over-

the-past-5-years/ (Accessed Date: February

23, 2024)

[44] E. S. H. Mak, "Solar Town Car

Development Programme," in 2020 8th

International Conference on Power

Electronics Systems and Applications

(PESA), 7-10 Dec. 2020 2020, pp. 1-4, doi:

10.1109/PESA50370.2020.9343959.

[45] Renogy, "RNG-320D Datasheet." Renogy,

[Online].

https://www.renogy.com/content/RNG-

320D/320D-Datasheet.pdf (Accessed Date:

November 15, 2023).

[46] J. P. Dunlop, Photovoltaic Systems, 3rd ed.

2012.

[47] "System Advisor Model Version

2022.11.29." National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, 2022, [Online].

https://sam.nrel.gov/citing-sam.html

(Accessed Date: November 15, 2023).

[48] MathWorks, "PV Array - MATLAB &

Simulink." MathWorks. 2023.

[49] MathWorks, "MPPT Algorithm," vol.

2024, [Online].

https://www.mathworks.com/ (Accessed

Date: November 15, 2023).

[50] C. P. S. Allen, "Solar Charge Controllers:

What Are They and How Much Do They

Cost?", Forbes, [Online].

https://www.forbes.com/home-

improvement/solar/solar-charge-controllers/

(Accessed Date: November 15, 2023).

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on CIRCUITS and SYSTEMS

DOI: 10.37394/23201.2023.22.27

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[51] A. S. Samosir, S. Purwiyanti, H. Gusmedi,

and M. Susanto, "Design of DC to DC

Converter for Solar Photovoltaic Power

Plant Applications," in 2021 International

Conference on Converging Technology in

Electrical and Information Engineering

(ICCTEIE), 27-28 Oct. 2021 2021, pp. 132-

137, doi:

10.1109/ICCTEIE54047.2021.9650639.

[52] A. Mohamed, M. Elshaer, and O.

Mohammed, "Bi-directional AC-DC/DC-

AC converter for power sharing of hybrid

AC/DC systems," in 2011 IEEE Power and

Energy Society General Meeting, 24-28 July

2011 2011, pp. 1-8, doi:

10.1109/PES.2011.6039868.

[53] D. C. A. Sacks, J. S. Cucal, Alan Dai, Alvin

Dai, S. Elias, J. Godinez, J. Jaurigue, K.

Nguyen, H. Vargas, Ha Thu Le,, "Solar

Powered Tent for Comfortable Outdoor

Living, Emergency and Flexible Activities,"

International Journal of Renewable Energy

Sources, vol. 9, 2023.

[54] NERMAK, "12V 20Ah Lithium Iron

Phosphate Battery", [Online].

https://www.amazon.com/NERMAK-

Phosphate-Rechargeable-Lighting-

Scooters/dp/B0B6ZBZ8T7?th=1 (Accessed

Date: November 15, 2023).

[55] AIMS Power, "DC to AC pure sine power

inverter PWRI18012S instruction manual",

[Online]. AIMS Power. aimscorp.net, 2018

(Accessed Date: October 12, 2023).

[56] "LiFePO4 Battery Discharge and Charge

Curve." BravaBattery, [Online].

https://www.bravabatteries.com/lifepo4-

battery-discharge-and-charge-curve/

(Accessed Date: November 15, 2023).

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APPENDIX

Table 1. List of components and costs

Description

Quantity

Cost,

$USD

NERMAK 12V 20Ah Lithium LiFePO4 Deep Cycle Battery

1

79.99

Elegoo uno R3 microcontroller

1

29.99

14 Gauge Primary Wire

4

27.99

Contactor

2

19.99

5W 12V Solar Panel

1

28.99

60 Hz AC motor

1

24.99

SunFounder Lab 4 Relay Module 5V

1

7.99

AIMS 180-WATT Pure Sine Inverter

1

86.00

5-wire lever nut

10

7.99

Power cord

1

6.99

DC motor (not used)

1

20.25

DC motor/generator

1

26.99

Junction box

1

34.99

Depvko Solar Charge Controller

1

11.99

Truck Model

1

79.99

Battery Charging Control Board (not used)

1

8.99

Motor controller (not used)

1

11.50

DC Motor speed controller

1

20.99

Lithium Battery Charger

1

27.99

DC power supply

1

57.99

Huanyang Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

1

139.99

Battery Cables

2

7.99

TOTAL (Including Taxes and Shipping)

$ 835.60

Table 2. Lithium LiFePO4 battery specification, [54]

Characteristic

Details

Battery Type

Lithium Ion

Cycle Life

>2000 cycle

Rated Capacity

20 Ah (0.2C,25°C)

Voltage

12.8 V

Wattage

255 W

Weight

5.5 LB

Charging Voltage

14.6±0.2V

Dimensions

(L x W x H): 7.16 x 6.69 x 3.03 inches

Continuous Discharge Current

20A

Continuous Charge Current

12A

Operating Temperature

Discharging: -4°F to 140°F; Charging: 32°F to 113°F

Peak discharge current

60A (Duration: less than 5 seconds)

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Table 3. Inverter specifications, [55]

Characteristic

Details

Model NO

PWR18012S

DC Input Voltage

12V (10-16V)

Output Wave Form

Pure Sine Wave THD <3%

Output Power

180W

Surge Power Capacity

360W for 40 milliseconds

Efficiency

Over 90%

No Load Current

0.4A

Battery Low Alarm

DC 9.8 +/- 0.3V

Battery Low Shutdown

DC 9.5 +/- 0.5V

Input Over Voltage Shutdown

16 +/- 0.5 VDC

Operating Temperature (Automatic Recovery/Shutdown)

32-113° F

Over Temperature Protection

149° F +/- 8° F

FAN

Load based

Marine

Conformal coated to protect again

moisture and corrosion

USB Output

5 VDC, Max 1A

Internal DC Input

Fuse Must Be Fitted, Use 30A

Remote Switch Port

Yes

Recommended Cable Size

20 AWG or bigger

Mounting Hole Location

3 5/8” hole to hole on width side

Power Switch

ON/OFF Control

Cigarette Lighter Cable

Yes

Dimensions (LxWxH)

6.75” x 3.25” x 1.5”

Net Weight

1 lb

A. Simulation blocks

Fig. A1: Inside simulation Battery block

Fig. A2: Inside the simulation Motor block

Fig. A3: Calculations from battery voltage and

current

Fig. A4: Blocks for creating vehicle speed command

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Fig. A5: Inside the Speed Command block

Fig. A6: Speed command for Highway conditions

Fig. A7: Generic engine specification

Fig. A8: Vehicle body specification

Fig. A9: Tire block configuration

Fig. A10: Motor and Drive block parameters

Fig. A11: MATLAB Simulink implementation

for testing truck solar PV system design

Fig. A12: Complete 18-wheeler block diagram

with series hybrid drive train configuration

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Fig. A13: LiFePO4 battery discharge curve, [56]

B. Arduino code

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

#include <ezButton.h>

ezButton toggleSwitch(13);

LiquidCrystal lcd(7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12);

double SOC = 0.05;

int SOC_Value = 0;

int bat_percent = 0;

String Status = "Charging";

const int RELAY_1 = 5; // Solar Panel

const int RELAY_2 = 4; // DC Motor/

const int RELAY_3 = 3; // AC Motor @ 60 Hz

const int RELAY_4 = 2; // AC Motor @ 50 Hz

const int RELAY_5 = 6; // Contractor

const int ADC_READ = A5; // reads the battery

void setup()

{

Serial.begin(9600);

toggleSwitch.setDebounceTime(100);

pinMode(ADC_READ, INPUT);

pinMode(RELAY_1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RELAY_2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RELAY_3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RELAY_4, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RELAY_5, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(RELAY_1, LOW); // Normally Open

digitalWrite(RELAY_2, LOW); // Normally Open

digitalWrite(RELAY_3, LOW); // Normally Open

digitalWrite(RELAY_4, HIGH); // Normally Open

digitalWrite(RELAY_5, LOW); // Normally Open

lcd.begin(16,2); //INIT

}

void loop(){

Beginning();

delay(1000);

if (bat_percent >= 80){

Status = "Idle";

digitalWrite(RELAY_1, HIGH); }

if (bat_percent < 75){

Status = "Charging";

digitalWrite(RELAY_1, LOW); }

if (bat_percent > 30){

switch_motor(); }

if (bat_percent < 30){

digitalWrite(RELAY_2, HIGH);

digitalWrite(RELAY_5, HIGH); }

delay(500);

lcd.clear(); }

void Beginning (){

SOC_Value = analogRead(ADC_READ);

lcd.setCursor(12,0);

lcd.print(SOC_Value);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print(Status);

if (SOC_Value >= 890) bat_percent = 100;

else if (SOC_Value >= 840)

bat_percent = map(SOC_Value, 840, 890, 95,

100);

else if (SOC_Value >= 700)

bat_percent = map(SOC_Value, 700, 840, 20, 95);

else if (SOC_Value >= 683)

bat_percent = map(SOC_Value, 683, 700, 0, 20);

else bat_percent = 0;

Serial.print("Battery:");

Serial.print(bat_percent);

Serial.println("%");

Serial.print("SOC:");

Serial.print(SOC_Value);

Serial.println("");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("SOC: ");

lcd.print(bat_percent);

lcd.print(" %");

}

void switch_motor(){

toggleSwitch.loop();

if (toggleSwitch.isPressed()){

Serial.println("The switch: OFF -> ON");

digitalWrite(RELAY_3, HIGH);

digitalWrite(RELAY_4, HIGH);

delay(10000);

digitalWrite(RELAY_4, LOW); // Normally Open,

}

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if (toggleSwitch.isReleased()){

Serial.println("The switch: ON -> OFF");

digitalWrite(RELAY_4, HIGH);

digitalWrite(RELAY_3, HIGH);

delay(10000);

digitalWrite(RELAY_3, LOW); // Normally Open,

}

int state = toggleSwitch.getState();

if (state == HIGH){

Serial.println(state);

Serial.println("The switch: OFF/50Hz");

} // Normally Open, }

else if (state == LOW){

Serial.println(state);

Serial.println("The switch: ON/60Hz");

}

void resetLCD(){

lcd.home();

lcd.print(" ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print(" ");

lcd.home();

delay(50);

}

C. Additional information and formulas

Power Formula

P=I×V (kW)

Where:

P represents power measured in watts (W)

V is the voltage measured in volts (V)

I is the current measured in amperes (A)

Charge Time Formula

Charge (A×h) = I ×t /1000

Where:

Charge is the charge of the battery measured in

amperes × hour (A×h)

I is the current measured in amperes

t is the time measured in hours

State of Charge Formula

Where:

(SOC)t is the remaining power of the battery at time

t,

𝑄0 indicates the rated capacity of the battery,

𝑄𝑖 represents the amount of power released by the

battery from 0 to t,

𝐼(𝑡) represents the current and takes the direction of

battery discharge current as positive,

and η is the charging and discharging efficiency.

Basic Power Formula

P = I2R,

Where:

I represents the current

R is the internal resistance of the battery.

Formula, DC-DC Converter

V1=N×V2

I2=N×I1

Where:

V1 is the primary voltage.

V2 is the secondary voltage.

I1 is the current flowing into the primary + terminal.

I2 is the current flowing out of the secondary +

terminal.

N is the winding ratio.

Horsepower to Watts Conversion Formula

Where:

N=efficiency

PF=Power Factor

The block accounts for torque dependent losses:

Where,

The electrical power loss is calculated by,

Joule's law defines the rate at which electrical

energy is transformed into heat energy where the heat

generated is proportional to the resistance of the wire.

Pelec is the electrical power that the block

calculates and uses in the governing equation.

Plosses is the electrical power lost during

operation. When you model the effects of heat flow

and temperature change, this value represents the rate

of heat flow that gets distributed into the thermal

mass or out port H.

ω is the angular velocity of the rotor.

τelec is the saturated torque demand.

k is the proportionality constant for resistance losses,

which has the units (energy*time)-1.

η is the efficiency of the motor and driver for a given

speed and torque.

ωη is the angular velocity that corresponds to the

overall efficiency. This value is equivalent to the

Speed at which efficiency is measured parameter.

τη is the torque that corresponds to the overall

efficiency.

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V is the voltage across the terminals.

I is the current through the terminals.

The efficiency, η, value is equivalent to the

motor and driver overall efficiency parameter. The

angular velocity that corresponds to the overall

efficiency, ωη, is equivalent to the Speed at which

efficiency is measured parameter. The torque that

corresponds to the overall efficiency, τη, is equivalent

to the Torque at which efficiency is measured

parameter.

There are assumptions and limitations of the

Motor and Block. The first assumption is the torque

demand is tracked with the time constant Tc. The

second assumption is that the motor torque tracking

is not affected by the motor speed fluctuations due to

mechanical load.

DC-DC Converters are electronic systems

designed to transform a direct current (DC) voltage

into a different level of DC voltage, commonly

ensuring a consistent and regulated output. An ideal

DC-DC voltage converter represents a theoretical

model with perfect efficiency and precision in

voltage transformation. In this theoretical construct,

the converter operates with 100% efficiency,

converting an input DC voltage to a desired output

DC voltage without any energy losses. It maintains a

stable and regulated output voltage without any drop

across its components, regardless of load variations

or changes in input voltage. This ideal converter

exhibits instantaneous response and adapts

seamlessly to fluctuations in input or load, ensuring a

consistent output voltage, [32].

The battery of the vehicle is a DC voltage source

with an internal resistance, voltage sensor, and

current sensor. The internal resistance of a DC

battery serves several essential purposes within the

functioning of the battery system. The internal

resistance plays a role in regulating the battery's

voltage output. For the simulation, the internal

resistance was set to 0.05 Ω. When a load connects to

the battery, this internal resistance causes a drop in

voltage across the battery terminals, impacting the

actual voltage available. This voltage regulation

ensures that the battery delivers a consistent and

stable voltage. The voltage and current sensors reflect

the ideal voltage and currents by converting the

voltage and current measured between two points of

the circuit and displaying the signals that correspond

to the measured values, [31].

Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The authors equally contributed to the present

research at all stages from the formulation of the

problem to the final findings and solution.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en_

US

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