Strangers to Strategic Allies: An Overview of Thriving,

Prospering and Blossoming Sino-Saudi Relations

FARRUKH NAWAZ KAYANI, KHALIL ABU SALEEM

Faculty of Business Studies,

Arab Open University,

KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

Abstract: - Over the last one-decade, Saudi Arabia has adopted the policy of “Looking East” and is rigorously

busy in developing and augmenting its economic and diplomatic relations with China. Since 2016, China and

Saudi Arabia have strongly supported and complemented each other via China’s Belt and Road Initiative and

the Saudi Vision 2030. In January 2016, Chinese President Xi Jinping paid a grand state visit to Saudi Arabia,

during which both countries decided to enter a comprehensive strategic partnership. Later in March 2017, Saudi

King Salman bin Abdul Aziz visited China and endorsed the Belt and Road Initiative project of China. By

reciprocating, China expressed its support for Saudi Arabia’s pursuit of the 2030 Vision and offered its help to

Saudi Arabia in achieving a diversified economy. So, both countries are busy in cementing their relations upon

the synergy of their two signature programs i.e. China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Saudi Vision 2030. This

article highlights the historical overview of Sino-Saudi relations, describing how the two countries transitioned

from mutual apathy to diplomatic relations, and then how this relationship grew to the point that they entered

into a comprehensive strategic partnership.

Key-Words: - China, Middle East, Bilateral Relations, Belt & Road Initiative, Economic relations, Sino-Saudi

Relation, Saudi Vision 2030.

Received: August 25, 2023. Revised: March 27, 2024. Accepted: May 11, 2024. Published: May 24, 2024.

1 Historical Evolution of China-Saudi

Relations

Since the establishment of formal diplomatic

relations between China and Saudi Arabia in 1990,

the bilateral relationship between them has grown

significantly and substantially, [1]. The

comprehensive bilateral relationship between the

two nations is particularly noteworthy, considering

the extensive trajectory that they followed in their

development. The phenomenon is mostly attributed

to the external factors, particularly the influence

exerted by various international actors, notably the

United States. Diplomatic contacts were hindered

for a significant portion of the Cold War due to

antagonistic alignments and doctrinal differences,

[2]. The close cooperation of Saudi Arabia with the

United States, together the leadership's antagonism

against Communism, led to a deep-seated mistrust

of the China, [3]. Consequently, Saudi Arabia

preserved diplomatic connections with Taiwan

initially. Prior to the late-1960s, both states

exhibited little significance to one another, and their

relationship could have been described as one of

mutual apathy. Even Saudi Arabia was the only

Arab country to vote against the China’s admission

to the United Nations in 1971, [4]. The shift

occurred as the foreign policy of China underwent a

transformative shift during the initial stages of the

Cultural Revolution .

The relationship had a gradual improvement in

the 1980s, mostly due to some regional

circumstances like the Iran-Iraq war. In 1986, Saudi

Arabia engaged in a sequence of covert negotiations

resulting in the acquisition of 50 Chinese missiles,

which had an estimated worth of $3.5 billion. An

additional consequence of this transaction was a

notable improvement in the bilateral ties between

China and Saudi Arabia, culminating in the official

establishment of diplomatic recognition in 1990.

Over time, the occurrence of regular visits by high-

ranking political officials and the establishment of

extensive commercial ties have played a significant

role in fostering strong and mutually beneficial

relationships between the two nations. This aligns

with a Chinese approach to fiscal diplomacy that

prioritizes the promotion of commerce and

investment while avoiding explicit connections

between commercial objectives and political factors,

[5]. Since the year 1990, the bilateral relationship

between China and Saudi Arabia has evolved into a

complex and diverse partnership, including several

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aspects such as politics, economics, and growing

diplomatic concerns. From the Chinese perspective,

Saudi Arabia has three distinct characteristics that

contribute to the backing of the Belt and Road

Initiative (BRI): a significant geo-strategic position,

its status as a prominent oil powerhouse, and its

influence within the worldwide Islamic community.

From a geographical standpoint, Saudi Arabia

has a favourable location that enables it to

effectively leverage the aspirations of the BRI in

terms of both sea and overland connections. Saudi

Arabia's pivotal position in the Middle East adds to

its geographic prominence since it borders eight

states, more than any other Arab country. Saudi

Arabia is an important stakeholder since is

positioned to be at the center of various regional

issues, [6]. China places significant importance on

Saudi Arabia's status as a prominent oil-producing

nation, particularly about energy matters. According

to the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC), the proven resources of crude oil

are estimated to be the second highest in the world,

amounting to 267 billion barrels. These reserves

constitute about 18% of the global oil reserves.

According to OPEC, it has the distinction of being

the top global producer of oil, with an average daily

output of 10.317 million barrels in 2018.

Saudi Arabia continuously ranks among the

primary suppliers of oil to China, alongside Russia.

In 2019, Saudi Arabia contributed for little over

14% of China's total crude oil imports. The exports

from Saudi Arabia to China had a significant

increase from August 2018 to July 2019, almost

doubling from 920 thousand barrels per day to 1.8

million barrels per day, because of the

reimplementation of U.S. sanctions on Iran. Despite

the macroeconomic ramifications brought about by

the coronavirus pandemic, the volume of Chinese

petroleum imports from Saudi Arabia stayed

consistently strong at 1.8 million barrels per

day during 2020’s first quarter, [7]. On the other

side, Saudi Arabia's pursuit of stronger ties with

China serves as a strategic response to both local

and international challenges. China has significant

importance as an economic collaborator for Saudi

Arabia, both in terms of its domestic significance

and its role as a long-term resource market. The

below Table 1 is showing the establishment of

diplomatic relations of Gulf countries with China.

Table 1. Gulf Countries Establishment of

Diplomatic Relations with China

Gulf Country Year of Diplomatic

Relations (With China)

Iraq 1958

Kuwait 1971

Iran 1971

Oman 1978

United Arab Emirates 1984

Qatar 1988

Bahrain 1989

Saudi Arabia 1990

[4]

According to [8], Saudi Aramco, expressed the

company's approach towards China as a transition

from a simple buyer-seller dynamic to a more

substantial involvement via investments aimed at

fostering China's economic expansion and

modernization. China and Saudi Arabia have a

bilateral energy cooperation that benefits the former

more than just its export market. China portrayed

itself to be a useful ally that successfully tackles a

wide range of the KSA's energy goals. Furthermore,

the alignment between China's BRI and KSA’s

Vision 2030 is a significant factor that Saudi

Arabian policymakers must consider, [9]. China

proposed BRI in 2013 with the aim of promoting a

more integrated regional market and more efficient

use of economic resources through broader and

deeper cooperation with the countries involved,

[10]. The BRI primarily focuses on fostering

connectivity throughout the Eurasian region, with

Chinese capital and infrastructural development

playing a pivotal role in its implementation. Saudi

Vision 2030 is the most recent endeavour

undertaken by the government of Riyadh to foster a

more diversified economy.

In 2015, McKinsey released a report titled

"Saudi Arabia beyond Oil: The Investment and

Productivity Transformation," which proposed the

allocation of investments across eight sectors to

foster economic diversification in Saudi Arabia,

[11]. These sectors included extraction and metals,

petroleum-based products, production, consumer

goods and wholesale trade, hospitality and travel,

health care, financial services, and development.

The desired outcome is the generation of six million

more work opportunities by the year 2030, hence

reducing the dependence on government-based job

opportunities. The attainment of this formidable

objective requires a major infusion of FDI and

collaborative endeavours with worldwide

corporations. In general, the increased inward flow

of foreign direct investment leads to higher levels of

economic growth, [12]. When foreign companies

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bring their operations into the host country, they

bring with them advanced technology, knowledge,

and resources which ultimately stimulate the

economic health of the country, [13]. One of the

main objectives of the developing countries is to

attain the domestic innovated high-tech industries

through FDI, [14]. Over the past few decades, the

world has experienced a technological transition, as

developing countries are aiming to become

technologically advanced countries.

2 The Growing Cultural Exchanges

between China and Saudi Arabia

Recently, there has been a notable growth in cultural

interchanges between China and Saudi Arabia,

driven by the strengthening economic and political

ties between the two nations. This comprehensive

interaction includes several domains, such as

commerce, academia, travel, etc. The establishment

of trade relations has facilitated Chinese

participation in infrastructure ventures in Saudi

Arabia, whilst educational efforts have seen an

increasing number of students actively engaged in

cross-cultural learning opportunities. The Confucius

Institutes established in Saudi Arabia serve as

platforms for the promotion of Chinese language

and culture, while reciprocally, cultural centers in

China are devoted to the exhibition and

dissemination of Saudi history. The phenomenon of

tourism has assumed a significant role, as seen by

the growing trend of Chinese tourists engaging in

travel activities inside Saudi Arabia, and

reciprocally, Saudi visitors venturing into China.

Cultural engagement is further enhanced by

cooperation in arts and entertainment, diplomatic

visits, and gastronomic exchanges, which serve to

cultivate mutual empathy and gratitude. The cultural

interchanges between China and Saudi Arabia have

been reinforced via the integration of traditional

artistic endeavors, crafts, and culinary styles,

therefore establishing a collective fabric of global

connection.

The Confucius Institute established at King

Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah is functioning as

center for the promotion of Chinese language

instruction and cultural immersion within the

context of Saudi Arabia. Partnerships in the realm of

cinema between Chinese and Saudi artists have

yielded cooperative ventures that effectively exhibit

a wide range of cultural tales to the audiences across

both countries. Tourism efforts facilitate the mutual

study of cultural monuments, whereby Chinese

visitors engage in visits to Saudi Arabia, and

conversely, Saudi travelers are engaged in visiting

China. Culinary contacts facilitate the convergence

of the distinct and diverse flavors inherent in

Chinese and Saudi food styles, therefore cultivating

a mutual admiration for the culinary customs and

practices of both cultures. The displays of

conventional crafts and arts serve to highlight the

profound cultural history, while also preserving and

disseminating the expertise in calligraphy, weaving,

and other related skills. The cultural understanding

between China and Saudi Arabia is being further

enhanced and the links of mutual respect are being

strengthened via a range of various encounters.

President Xi Jinping has declared that China

wants to increase the scope of cultural exchanges,

youth exchange programs, and deepen ties of

cooperation in the travelling, aviation industry,

media, and publishing industries with the Arab

countries. An agreement to increase cultural

interaction and cooperation was struck between

China and Saudi Arabia in 2016, [15]. In March of

2017, Beijing hosted the Saudi Cultural Heritage

Exhibition and the inauguration ceremony for the

King's Library at Peking University, which was

generously funded by the Saudi government. The

academicians from both nations feel these events

help to foster better cross-cultural understanding.

The Saudi ambassador to China recently noted the

dire need for better communication and

understanding between the two countries. Therefore,

it is important to promote cultural exchanges in

addition to the expanding economic ties between

China and Saudi Arabia, [16].

3 Flourishing Bilateral Trade

Relations between China and Saudi

Arabia

The economic cooperation between China and Saudi

Arabia has increased exponentially over the last two

decades. The two countries decided to transform the

bilateral partnership into a strategic alliance. As the

largest trading partner of Saudi Arabia, China

overtook the United States in 2013, [17]. During his

official visit to Saudi Arabia in January 2016, the

President of China, Xi Jinping, established a

comprehensive strategic alliance between China and

Saudi Arabia. Later in 2017, King Salman bin

Abdul Aziz paid a visit to China. Saudi Arabia’s

support for the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI) was

much appreciated, and China looked forward to

working with Saudi Arabia on the BRI project. In

return, China said that it fully backs Saudia's

dedication to the 2030 Vision and is ready to make

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contributions to the kingdom's efforts to diversify its

economy. Saudi Arabia is actively engaged with

China under the BRI project as part of its "Look

East" strategy and to strengthen economic and

political ties with China.

Economists in Saudi Arabia agree that

strengthening ties with China would benefit the

country's economy and would augment the Saudi

Vision 2030. The Chinese government has publicly

acknowledged and endorsed Saudia's Vision 2030.

During the visit of King Salam Bin Abdul Aziz in

March 2017, Chinese President Xi emphasized

China's support for Vision 2030, which was

subsequently formalized in the "Joint Statement

between China and Saudi Arabia". China and Saudi

Arabia have joined together to advance financial

integration as a key component of their alliance,

[18]. In 2015, the Chinese Ministry of Finance

made a public declaration stating that Saudi Arabia

would be recognized as an official founding

member of the AIIB. Later in June, the ICBC Bank

from China inaugurated a branch in Riyadh,

establishing the first ICBC branch inside the Middle

Eastern region. To bolster the international standing

of the Chinese Renminbi (RMB) and strengthen

bilateral ties with other trading partners, China has

begun discussions with Saudi Arabia about the

potential for revising the clauses of their bilateral oil

trade contract to allow for transactions to be

conducted in RMB instead of the U.S. dollar, [19].

Over the years, the bilateral trade volume

between China and Saudi Arabia has increased

tremendously. Chinese businesses are engaged in

different investment projects in Saudi Arabia,

spanning various sectors such as petrochemicals,

railroads, ports, power stations, and

communications. Currently, Saudi Arabia is

anticipated to emerge as China's second most

significant provider of crude oil imports, ranking

just behind Russia. Sinopec is a crucial trading

partner for Saudi Aramco in the field of crude oil

and serves as a significant contractor for onshore

drilling operations. The two companies have a

lengthy track record of collaborating on activities

such as refining, petroleum commerce, and

technological support. The establishment of the

Yanbu Aramco Sinopec Refining Company in 2016

was a direct outcome of the collaborative efforts of

the two corporations in the processing and

biochemical integration industries in China's Fujian

Province. Furthermore, the two countries are

committed to bolstering the ties in areas such as

renewable technology development and research,

[20]. Figure 1 is showing the bilateral trade relations

between China and Saudi Arabia.

Fig. 1: Bilateral Trade Relations

4 Deepening Energy Cooperation

between China and Saudi Arabia

In 1998, Aramco established the Saudi Petroleum

Ltd. in Beijing to handle the international sales and

marketing. Next year, Chinese President Jiang

Zemin travelled to Saudi Arabia to declare the

beginning of a "strategic oil partnership" when the

country's crude oil imports reached 86,000 barrels

per day. Under the terms of the deal, Saudi Arabia

pledged to welcome Chinese investment in

everything except upstream oil production and

exploration in its domestic oil and gas industry. In

return, China would welcome Saudi investment in

its downstream sector, with a focus on modernizing

its refineries. Aramco began talks with Sinopec in

2001 on a prospective $5 billion joint equity venture

to develop an aging refining and petrochemical

facility in Quanzhou, Fujian. After lengthy

negotiations with the government of Fujian

province, Aramco, ExxonMobil, and Sinopec agreed

in 2004 to form the Fujian Refining and

Petrochemical Company Ltd. (FRPC), with Aramco,

ExxonMobil, and Sinopec holding 25%, 25%, and

50% ownership stakes, respectively.

Aramco's investment of around $750 million in

the project aimed to enhance the capacity of the

existing refinery thrice, enabling it to process Saudi

heavy crude oil from 80 thousand barrels per day to

240 thousand barrels per day. Furthermore, the

facility underwent integration of novel

petrochemical facilities, including an ethylene steam

cracker with a production capacity of 800,000 tons

per year, a polyethylene unit capable of producing

650 thousand tons per year, a polypropylene unit

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with a capacity of 0.4 million tons per year, and an

aromatics unit capable of producing 01 million tons

per year, [21]. Solar energy is another promising

area for collaboration, Saudi Arabia has embarked

on a $100 billion initiative to convert the kingdom

into a solar powerhouse. The Saudi solar power

venture will not only help the country reduce its

reliance on foreign oil and improve energy security,

but it will also create new business opportunities for

China, which has a significant cost advantage in the

wafer production and polysilicon conversion

processes required for solar power generation.

There is a high probability that the bulk of the

[Saudi] plant's production will be exported to China

and Taiwan, where most of the wafer manufacturing

takes place, due to the worldwide nature of the solar

industry's trade flow, [22].

5 Alignment between Chinese BRI

and Saudi Vision 2030

In this fast-changing world the political dynamics

and the nature of inter-state relations is ever-

evolving, [23]. Since Saudi Arabia serves as a vital

connection between China and the Eurasian

hinterland and as a major hub linking China to the

huge African market, the two countries make natural

and ideal cooperation partners in constructing BRI.

Further, the alignment between Chinese BRI and

Saudi Vision 2030 has paved a way for broader

cooperation and collaboration between China and

Saudi Arabia. High-level meetings have and the

State visits by Chinese leaders and the Saudi leaders

have further augmented the relationship between

two countries. King Salman bin Abdul Aziz visited

China in 2017 and thus became the second Saudi

ruler to do so after King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz,

[24]. During King Salman's state visit in March

2017, in total 21 accords worth up to $65 billion

were inked, comprising investments in oil and

petrochemical facilities, renewable sources of

energy, and e-commerce. For Beijing to consider a

state as a thorough strategic collaborate, the state

must have a substantial political and economic

influence on the global stage. Additionally, the

bilateral connection should already possess a strong

level of political trust, close economic connections,

and well-established relationships in other areas of

mutual concern, [25]. Normally, for the highest

degree of diplomatic ties with China, governments

must agree to "full pursuit of development and

cooperation on both regional and international

affairs", [26].

BRI urges the partner governments to expand

their trading territories, enhance trade structure, seek

untapped areas of trade, and foster trade

equilibrium. While bilateral commerce between the

two countries is well-established, Saudi Arabia's

economy remains mostly reliant on a single

commodity, oil, and oil-related products, accounting

for roughly 90% of the country's exports to China.

China has consistently been Saudi Arabia's primary

commercial ally in the Arabian Peninsula since

2014, and reciprocally, Saudi Arabia has been

China's most significant trading associate in the

region. Partnerships with energy importers are vital

to Saudi Arabia's economy since oil exports provide

for around 87% of budget income and 90% of

export profits, [27]. In 2016, China's investments in

the Middle East as part of the BRI made it the

biggest external provider of FDI in the area. Saudi

Arabia, in particular, has been actively capitalizing

on the rise in Chinese procurement and investing

opportunities, [28]. Jazan's strategic location

between the Arabian and Mediterranean seas

suggests this might be a major area of collaboration

under the infrastructure’s connectivity agenda, [29].

As far as a partnership with financial institutions is

concerned, Saudi Arabia lags behind its neighbours

the United Arab Emirates and Qatar, although it is

expanding in the direction that one would assume

given the extent of bilateral trade and investment.

The single ICBC office in Saudi Arabia is in the

capital of Riyadh, despite the country's heavy

reliance on Chinese commerce and investment, [30].

6 Conclusion

The Sino-Saudi Arabia relationship is typically

simplified by using an oil-for-goods framework,

which overlooks the diverse and strong nature of the

partnership, primarily driven by energy commerce.

However great progress has been made in various

fields since the establishment of diplomatic relations

between China and Saudi Arabia in 1990. The

simultaneous implementation of China's BRI and

Saudi Vision 2030 is a significant aspect of the

relationship between the two countries. Both

countries are busy in cementing their relations upon

the synergy of their two signature programs i.e.

China’s BRI and Saudi Vision 2030. Beijing and

Riyadh are strategically chosen because they have

plenty to offer one another in terms of economic

connections. The macroeconomic and security

conditions of the Middle East will continue to be

shaped by China's expanding influence and interests

in the area. In March 2023, China brokered an

agreement between Iran and Saudi Arabia to re-

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establish diplomatic relations, clearly showing

China’s willingness and capacity to engage

politically in the Middle East. Over the years, the

bilateral trade volume between China and Saudi

Arabia has increased tremendously. Chinese

businesses are engaged in different investment

projects in Saudi Arabia, spanning various sectors

such as petrochemicals, railroads, ports, power

stations, and communications. This initiative is an

essential part of China's real presence in the Middle

East, and it is predicted that it will get significant

political and economic backing in the coming years.

Acknowledgement:

The authors extend their appreciation to the Arab

Open University for funding this work through

research fund no. (AOUKSA-524008).

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The authors equally contributed in the present

research, at all stages from the formulation of the

problem to the final findings and solution.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

The authors extend their appreciation to the Arab

Open University for funding this work through

research fund no. (AOUKSA-524008).

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

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Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

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