Socio-Economic Factors and Women’s Empowerment:
The Mediation Role of Training/Skill Development
FAIEZ AHMED ELNEEL1, ABDULLAH FAHAD ALMULHIM2
1Department of Finance and Investment, College of Business,
Jouf University, Sakaka,
ORCiD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0448-9718
SAUDI ARABIA
2Department of Business Administration, College of Business,
Jouf University, Sakaka,
ORCiD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1864-1880
SAUDI ARABIA
Abstract: - The Saudi Vision 2030 has a view that women's participation in the workforce not only helps to
shift the prevailing attitudes and economic structures within a region but also significantly impacts the
economic well-being of their families. Women can supplement their family's income by earning a wage,
leading to an improved standard of living and better overall health outcomes. Therefore, this study tries to find
the relationship between socio-economic factors and women’s empowerment and investigate the mediating role
of training/skill development between socio-economics factors and women’s empowerment among Saudi
women. This study collected the data with authentic and well-developed questionnaires from renowned areas of
Saudi Arabia. The sample size for the analysis consisted of 327 participants and used Smart PLS for data
analysis. The results of this study found that socio-economic factors have no significant direct impact on
women's empowerment. In contrast, socio-economic factors positively impact training/skill development as
well as training/skill development impacts women's empowerment. Therefore, training/skill development
mediates the relationship between socio-economic factors and women's empowerment. This study found that
the women participating are essential for the development of overall society. The study revealed the crucial role
played by women in contributing to the household economy, as reflected by the income generated by them is
comparable to that of male workers. This can be attributed to the significant drive exhibited by housewives to
assist their husbands in easing the financial burden, along with the favorable opportunities presented by natural
resources. The training/skill development program positively and significantly enhances the chances of
women's empowerment in Saudi Arabia.
Key-Words: - Socio-economic factors, training/skill development, women’s empowerment, Smart PLS, Vision
2030, Saudi Arabia.
Received: March 26, 2023. Revised: September 8, 2023. Accepted: October 11, 2023. Available online: November 17, 2023.
1 Introduction
Women are an essential part of society and play
important roles in all the fields of life, [1].
Unfortunately, in some societies, women are
relegated to a secondary position, which is difficult
to accept, [2]. Empowering women involves
granting them authority in their daily lives, which is
the key to their status and power. It can be said that
empowering women means the authority to women
for making their own decisions in life, [3]. Women's
contributions to the workforce not only change the
concept of society but her participation in the
workforce makes the family financially strong, [4].
In modern times, the process of social development
has changed family dynamics and there can be the
emergence of single-parenting for women, [5].
Similarly, the significance of empowering and
providing support to women has been acknowledged
by the Saudi Arabian government. In 2016, King
Salman bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud and Crown Prince
Muhammad bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
launched Saudi Vision 2030. The aim of this project
is, to make Saudi Arabia a strong and prosperous
nation, [6]. Although significant strides have been
taken to enhance financial, WE (women
empowerment) in the Saudi nation, because is a
need for time to empower females to handle the
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current challenges of modern life. This is
particularly crucial since there has been a dearth of
research on these issues in the past, [7].
There are a few studies, [8], [9], [10], [11], that
explained the SEF (socio-economics factors) and
WE in different countries and with different factors.
These studies have some limitations as, [1], studied
only WE and collected data from limited bank loan
sachems. Research by, [8], related WE in the
context of properties and limited the research to
household food securities. Research by, [11], used
19 dimensions of WE and developed but this study
did not explain the women’s skills and training to
make WE. In the framework of Saudi Arabia, there
is a deficiency of research concerning the analysis
of some important SEF of WE. In the literature of
previous studies, there is a need to focus on some
unrevealed aspects and implications for the theories
already developed by the authors. Consequently, the
purpose of this current research is to lessen the gaps
generated by earlier studies; try to find out SEF's
impact on WE, and investigate the mediating role of
TSD (training/skill development relationship)
between SEF and WE in Saudi Arabia. Further, this
study also explained the existence of the critical
consciousness theory, [12], for women's
empowerment, which never has been used in the
context of Saudi Arabia.
Therefore, this study is very significant for
policymakers, society, and future research to see the
importance of women's empowerment. Further, the
research has contributed to expressing an operative
and supportive approach to authorizing Saudi
women to empower women economically. It has
been shown to have positive effects on both the
individual and society as a whole. Furthermore, by
accumulating women's involvement in the labor
market and increasing their self-dependence and
capability, the study aims to make the most of their
participation in supportable development in Saudi
Arabia. The theoretical and practical implication of
this study is to provide appreciated visions to
decision-makers in both the public and private
sectors. This research has great contribution to
guiding policymakers in formulating policies and
programs that promote women's economic
empowerment. Further, the theoretical, justification,
and empirical results of this study will not be
limited to Saudi Arabia, it can provide a vision to
different developing countries to give more attention
to the progress of women.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Socio-economic Factors and Women's
Empowerment
SEF plays an important role in empowering women.
Whereas, WE denotes the procedure for
empowering the female to make decisions in all
aspects of life. The socio-economics factors have
consisted of education, financial factors, decision-
making power, self-esteem, self-confidence, etc.,
[11]. First of all, education is an important factor for
WE, educated women tend to have better health
outcomes, earn more, and have more control over
their lives. Women's employment opportunities are
essential for their economic empowerment and
access to decent work and equal pay for equal work
are critical factors for women's economic
empowerment, [13]. Women also get empowered by
the access to financial resources for their economic
independence, access to credit, savings, and
insurance can help women start their businesses and
achieve financial stability, [14], [15]. Further, legal
independence is also an element in WE. Women's
legal rights, including their rights to own property,
inherit, and divorce, are crucial for their
empowerment, [16], [17]. Further, social norms and
attitudes toward women can have a noteworthy
influence on their empowerment. According to,
[18], gender stereotypes and discrimination limit
women's access to education and employment. So,
the critical consciousness theory is developed on
women's consciousness to save them from domestic
violence and provide self-esteem as well as
confidence, [19]. Therefore, this current study has
developed the following hypothesis:
H1: SEF has a positive and significant relationship
with WE.
2.2 Socio-economic Factors and
Training/Skill Development
Socio-economic factors play a crucial role in
determining the success of training and skill
development programs. These programs are
designed to improve the skills and abilities of
individuals, particularly in the workforce, and
enable them to participate fully in the economy,
[20]. There are some ways in which socio-economic
factors can impact the effectiveness of training and
skill development programs such as education is a
critical factor that affects individuals' ability to
participate in training and skill development
programs. Access to quality education and literacy
levels can determine the need for training to get
skills, [21], [22]. Employment opportunities can
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also determine the success of training and skill
development programs. Individuals may not be
motivated to participate in training programs if there
are no job opportunities available in their field.
According to, [23], income plays an important role
participation of a person in training programs.
Furthermore, training facilities, transportation, and
use of technologies have significant associations
with programs related to skill development, [24],
[25]. The conscious theory for women's
empowerment also explains that skill development
empowers women, [26]. Thus, this present study has
established the subsequent hypothesis:
H2: SEF has a positive and significant relationship
with TSD.
2.3 Training/Skill Development and
Women's Empowerment
TSD are crucial for empowering women. These
programs are established to arrange the setup of
skills and knowledge for women to achieve
financial independence and make their social and
political position much better, [27]. TSD programs
offer women the essential skills to arrive in the
workforce, start their production, or advance their
job scenarios, [28]. TSD programs also benefit
women in developing management skills and
political aspects, [29]. TSD programs build self-
possession and self-confidence, which assist them in
getting knowledge about their rights, decision-
making skills, and tracking their goals, [30].
Training and skill development programs can also
promote better health outcomes for women by
providing education on health and hygiene, as well
as access to healthcare resources, [31]. According to
conscious theory, training, and skill development
programs play an important part in providing skills
to women and making them financially and socially
strong, [32]. Consequently, this present study has
settled the subsequent hypothesis:
H3: TSD has a positive and significant relationship
with WE.
2.4 Mediating Role of Training/Skill
Development between Socio-economic
Factors and Women's Empowerment
Training and skill development are important factors
to enable any person to earn and learn professional
skills, [33]. In this study, training and skill
development is used as a mediator. Empowerment is
mostly known as an objective that is attained
through education, [11], however, all knowledge is
not used to measure empowerment; awareness and
talent development are also exceptional tools to
measure empowerment. As the SEF is attributed to,
WE and training and skill development enhance the
possibilities of women's empowerment by
increasing the skills among them. Training and skill
development can play an important role in
mediating the association between SEF and WE.
Women from lower socio-economic backgrounds
often have limited access to training and skill
development programs, [34]. The skill development
programs enhance the job opportunities and make
the women independent. Training and skill
development can also increase women's earning
potential because, with higher earnings, women can
have more control over their finances, which can
lead to greater autonomy and decision-making
power, [1]. Therefore, this present study has
established the subsequent hypothesis:
H4: TSD mediates the relationship between SEF
and WE.
Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 explains the conceptual framework of
the study. This diagram explains that socio-
economic factors have a direct and indirect
relationship with WE. For the indirect relationship
socio-economic factors impact training/skill
development and then training and skill
development help to enhance women's
empowerment.
3 Methodology
The current study is cross-sectional and data is
collected with the help of a convenient sampling
method. This method is widely used in social
sciences, [35]. According to, [36], this is the best
method to collect the data even in a short time. For
this current study, the targeted population was
females living in Saudi Arabia. Data is collected
with the help of a questionnaire and the validity of
the questionnaire was confirmed by a preliminary
test. Moreover, 500 questionnaires were distributed
from June to August 2021 among the participants
and informed them about the nature of the study as
well as the confidentiality of their personal
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information. To increase the response rate, the
questionnaires were translated from English to
Arabic as well. 327 questionnaires out of 500 were
received. So, the response rate was 65.4 which is
favorable for data analysis.
Table 1 explains the characteristics of
participants. It is noted that the response rate of the
study sample in the Al-Jouf region is high (57.6%)
compared to other regions covered by the study
sample. Most of the age groups of female
respondents are young (48.3%), and this is an
indication of the opportunities that must be
strengthened to benefit from development. The level
of education of most of the respondents is a
bachelor's (62.7%) and this is an advantage that
enhances the benefit of women who are qualified
and willing to enter the labor market. The
percentage of women employed in the private sector
represents the highest percentage (83.9%) compared
to women who work for their account, and here it is
necessary to consider empowering women in terms
of enabling them to work more than a job, and this
would achieve the vision in its comprehensive
sense. It is shown in the table that the period for
most women who are employed in the private sector
or self-employed falls in the period (2017-2020),
which is the period during which the vision became
effective in reality, and this is one of the positive
results of the vision 2030.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of participants
Percent (%)
Scale
Variable
57.6%
Al-Jouf
Regions
13.6%
Hail
6.8%
Madina El
Monawara
12.7%
Eastern
6.8%
Riyadh
2.5%
Mecca
48.3%
20 to 30
Age
32.2%
31 to 40
19.5%
41 to 50
25.1%
Less than bachelor
Education level
62.7%
Bachelor
12.2%
Master's degree or
higher
83.9%
Private sector
employees
Employment sector
or private business
ownership
16.1%
I have a special
activity
10.2%
2005-2008
The date of
employment in the
sector or practicing
the private
economic activity
20.3%
2009-2012
26.3%
2013-2016
43.2%
2017-2020
3.1 Measurement
3.1.1 Socio-economic Factors
SEF is measured with items developed by, [37],
such as “the availability of nearby organizations has
an impact on my ability to get a job or create my
own business”, “the availability of transportation
affects my ability to gain employment in
organizations or my ability to be self-employed” etc.
3.1.2 Women's Empowerment
WE are measured with items developed by, [7],
such as “self-esteem, self-efficiency, freedom of
mobility, access to services, access to education,
decision-making in daily life, economic
empowerment, and gender-based violence” as a
dimension of women empowerment.
3.1.3 Training/Skill Development
Training/skill development is measured with items
developed by, [38], such as “training and skills
development programs are useful in helping me in
running my business”. etc.
3.2 Data Analysis
SmartPLS is applied for data analysis. Data analysis
tools have become important in all the fields of
management and science. The analysis has consisted
of a test of the measurement model and structural
model. First, this study conducted factor loadings,
Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and average
variance extracted. Moreover, the theoretical model
was examined by testing the discriminant validity
(DV) and correlation. Further, common method bias
has been used such as coefficient of determination
(R2), effect size (F2), and predictive relevance (Q2).
In the end, this study performed SEM on the data to
test the proposed hypotheses.
4 Results
4.1 Measurement Model
After data collection, the current study measured the
constructs' reliability with the help of factor
loadings, Cronbach's alpha (CA), and composite
reliability (CR) values. Table 2 explains the
measurement model. A factor loading value greater
than 0.5 is considered acceptable, and when it is
equivalent to 0.7 or higher, it is also acceptable for a
single indicator, as suggested by, [39], [40], [41].
The CA and CR acceptance values have a threshold
level of 0.70, as determined by, [42]. So, the values
of factor loadings, CA, and CR lie within the
threshold. Consequently, the proposed model is
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acceptable. Further, the average variance extracted
(AVE) must be greater than 0.50. Table 2 explains
that the AVE value is 0.542 to 0.886 which is more
than the threshold level. For further analysis,
discriminant validity is examined by the Fornell-
Larcker criterion. The values in Table 3 indicate that
variables have positive as well as significant
correlations, [40].
4.2 Structural Model
The structural model for the test of the hypotheses is
very crucial. This study used bootstrapping
techniques for co-efficient path factor loading
initiated by, [43]. This model extracted the values of
coefficient determination (R2), predictive relevance
(Q2), and effect size (F2) before analyzing the
hypotheses. The F2 value 0.02 indicates a small
effect, 0.15 denotes medium while 0.35 explains a
strong effect, [41]. The values for F2 in Table 4
show that variables have a medium effect, R2 values
greater than 0.10, and predictive relevance Q2 is
significant and higher than zero for the current
research.
The structural model is tested through
bootstrapping for 327 cases and 5000 resamples
recommended by, [44], to examine the hypotheses.
Table 4 shows the structural model. The results for
H1 showed that there is no relationship between
socio-economic factors and women's empowerment
(β = 0.024, p > 0.05). Therefore, H1 was not
supported. While the result revealed that the socio-
economic factors positively affect training/skill
development (β = 0.363, p < 0.001), training/skill
development positively affects women's
empowerment (β = 0392, p < 0.001). Thus, H2 and
H3 were supported. Similarly, socio-economic
factors positively influence women's empowerment
with training/skill development as a mediator (β =
0.307, p < 0.001).
Table 2. Measurement model
Items
Loadings
Alpha
CR
AVE
SEF1
0.892
0.907
0.932
0.734
SEF2
0.899
SEF3
0.698
SEF4
0.873
SEF5
0.903
WE1
0.832
0.912
0.904
0.542
WE2
0.794
WE3
0.811
WE4
0.694
WE5
0.672
WE6
0.693
WE7
0.692
WE8
0.681
TSD1
0.941
0.968
0.975
0.886
TSD2
0.953
TSD3
0.935
TSD4
0.932
TSD5
0.945
Note(s): AVE = Average Variance Extracted, CR= Composite Reliability, CA = Cronbach’s Alpha
Table 3. Discriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker criterion)
Socio-economic Factors
Training/Skill Development
Women Empowerment
0.384
0.212
0.671
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Table 4. Hypothesis constructs
Hypothesis
Relationship
Std
beta
Std
error
T-value
P-value
Decision
R2
Q2
F2
H1
SEF -> WE
0.024
0.030
0.797
0.426
No
0.702
0.266
0.161
H2
SEF -> TSD
0.363
0.064
5.652
0.001
Yes
0.132
0.115
0.152
H3
TSD -> WE
0.392
0.055
7.174
0.001
Yes
0.212
H4
SEF-> TSD -> WE
0.307
0.056
5.478
0.001
Yes
5 Discussion
This study aims to develop and find out the socio-
economic factors on women’s empowerment and to
investigate the mediating role of training/skill
development. Therefore, four hypotheses have been
developed to see the relationship. The data analysis
found that this study rejected the first hypothesis
which explained there is no relationship between
socio-economic factors and women empowerment
in the context of Saudi Arabia. However, results
indicate that socio-economic factors have an indirect
as well as significant relationship with women's
empowerment. This finding may be surprising for
many researchers but, there may be some grounds
that can be the cause of not acceptance of this
hypothesis. The women of Saudi Arabia have self-
confidence and easy access to technologies after the
official announcement of Saudi Vision 2030 for this
study, the data were collected from June to August
2021 after promoting social and cultural reforms,
while the women can get more empowerment after
the training and skill development, [22]. For
example, [45], found in the study that there are
some areas in the country where women have less
empowered women than in other areas due to
awareness or facilities. In other words, this study
explained that in some countries may be no direct
relationship between SEF on WE but after the skill
and training women gain consciousness or
awareness to attain their empowerment, [24].
Further, based on data analysis, it is found that
SEF has a positive and significant impact on TSD,
[21], [22]. In some of Saudi Arabia, women have a
lack of self-esteem, self-confidence, the opportunity
for decision-making and approach to infrastructure,
training facilities impact the enrolment of women in
skill development programs, [24], [25].
Further, this study accepted the hypothesis that
explained that TSD has a positive relationship with
WE. The training/skill developments enhance the
hidden abilities of the women and provide women
with the expertise and awareness required to
contribute fully to the marketplace, attain economic
liberation, and improve their social and political
position, [27]. The establishment of skill
development programs helps women start their
businesses, or increase their professional prospects,
[28]. Women with proper training and skill
development use to have the ability of self-
confidence, self-esteem, and decision-making which
makes them more powerful, [30].
Additionally, analysis reveals that training/skill
development has a significant mediating role
between socio-economic factors and women
empowerment. Training and skill development a
significant aspects to enable any individual to learn
professional skills and earn, [33]. Mostly it is a
perception that empowerment can be achieved with
only education, [11], an essential element of socio-
economics factor skills development that can be
tools to measure women’s empowerment for their
professional life. Women having low socio-
economic backgrounds do not have access to skill
programs, [34], but the provision of training and
skill development helps them to increase their self-
confidence, and decision-making opportunities and
make them financially strong.
5.1 Theoretical Implications
This study is unique in many theoretical aspects.
First, this study used socio-economic factors to
investigate women's empowerment and the
mediating role of training/skill development, such a
combination of variables has never been used.
Second, this study extracted unique results in which
found no direct relationship between socio-
economic factors and women empowerment but it
has an indirect relationship with the help of a
mediator (training/skill development). Further, this
study used conscious theory for women's
empowerment and this theory gives strength to the
conceptual framework of the current study. Due to
its uniqueness, the theoretical implication of this
study is a great source of knowledge to
policymakers, future researchers, and society.
5.2 Practical Implications
This study has strong practical implications in the
private and public sectors as well as in society. This
study has great contribution to the best implication
and clarity in Vision 2030 for women’s
empowerment. This current study emphasized that
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women are a very important part of society, whereas
socio-economic factors have a positive relationship
with the contribution of women in social, economic,
and political activities. These findings are correlated
with Vision 2030, as this vision places more stress
on gender equality, education, and skill
development as well as economic empowerment.
So, this study will make the project of Vision 2030
more powerful by providing awareness.
First, this study is vital to provide more efforts to
raise the level of awareness of society about Vision
2030, its objectives, programs, and implementation
deadlines, [46]. This study contributes to providing
awareness to the female about their self-esteem and
importance in the economics and financial activities
in the world.
Second, this study explains the future benefits of
women's empowerment in Vision 2030 for the
economy and society. The implementation of results
targets the citizens through modern technological
means such as social media and through visual and
print media, workshops, forums, and lectures.
Third, this study is very important and has the
best contribution to encouraging and accelerating
the activities of women in economic departments,
which is one of the main pillars of sustainable
development. This study supports women and
enables them to invest their income and invest in the
family, society, and the state by enacting supportive
laws and legislations and granting them more
economic and social freedoms through awareness
programs and guidance directed at women and
society.
Fourth, the current study encourages and
prepares the female component to practice private
work more than focusing on the job in a way that
enhances its social status and working to remove all
negative concepts about women practicing work in
the private sector and encouraging women to start
new small or medium projects that are economically
feasible and facilitating their access to training and
necessary financing, where women can take
decisions and use their abilities. In other words, this
study increases the sense of female entrepreneurship
among women not only from Saudi Arabia but also
from other developing countries.
This study also enables the society and
administrative body to establish a special form for
the empowerment of women to assume the role of
professional training to qualify women and enable
them to obtain the financing and support necessary
to enter the labor market efficiently and with merit.
Lastly, this study urges the government and well-
fair authorities to establish specific training and
development projects. These projects should aim to
make women more confident and provide awareness
about financial independence.
6 Conclusions and Recommendations
Women play an important part in social, economic,
and domestic activities. They have their own
identity and self-esteem. In Saudi Arabia, a plan
named 2030 tries to enhance the condition of
women by making them independent. So, the
current study tried to unveil the relationship
between SEF and WE, while training/skill
development acts as a mediator between SEF and
WE. This study collected data from 327 females and
applied SmartsPLS tools to get empirical results.
Further, the current study found that SEF does not
have a relationship with WE, but TSD plays an
important as well as significant mediating role
between SEF and WE. The current study has
novelty and importance for making a clear image of
the WE. This paper insists the readers accept
women's empowerment because women's
contribution to economic activities can boost the
performance of overall sectors. Women are more
diligent and hardworking as well as more
disciplined, whereas for the best performance TSD
program plays a crucial role. Empowered women
work hard, also give the best life to the family and
less burden in the household.
This study also suggests that this conceptual
framework should be used to check in different
countries. Different countries have their own
culture, ethics, and religious beliefs, whereas the
repeating current research model in different
countries can help to identify the findings across
different countries. The major aim of suggesting
this model is for various developing and developed
countries to check the validity of the model and the
SEF and women empowerment.
7 Limitations and Future Research
Women are making great contributions and with the
advancement of time, women's participation in
society has increased. Women’s contribution to
economics and business has great importance.
Despite the great contribution of this study in
explaining socio-economic factors related to women
empowerment in the context of Saudi Arabia, this
study has some limitations as this study selected
some specific areas of Saudi Arabia, and being an
Islamic country, it has different culture, resources
abundances and working environment for the
women. Therefore, the same model can be tested in
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Western countries. Secondly, this study used
training and skill development as the mediator;
future studies can use technological innovation or
the use of smart technologies as the mediator or
moderator to bring novelty to the model. Thirdly,
there are many theories for women's empowerment,
but the current study used only one theory (The
critical consciousness theory) and future studies can
see (the capability approach, intersectionality, etc.)
and implications in the context of Saudi Arabia.
Acknowledgement:
The authors extend their appreciation to the
Deanship of Scientific Research at Jouf University
for funding this work through research grant No
(DSR2020-05-401).
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
The authors equally contributed to the present
research, at all stages from the formulation of the
problem to the final findings and solution.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
This work was funded by the Deanship of Scientific
Research at Jouf University under grant number
(DSR2020-05-401).
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2024.21.17
Faiez Ahmed Elneel, Abdullah Fahad Almulhim
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
201
Volume 21, 2024