Hidden Costs in Higher Education:

A Literature Scientific Analysis

ANDREA RAMÍREZ1, EDISON CALDERÓN2, NORBERTO MORALES3, ROSA BURGOS4,

RAÚL RAMÍREZ5

Facultad de Administración de Empresas,

Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo,

Panamericana Sur Km 1 1/2, Riobamba,

ECUADOR

1https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1128-2272

2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4016-6801

3https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3968-5700

4https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8379-7761

5https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4964-8636

Abstract: - Hidden costs are a relevant issue in the financial planning of institutions. In the context of higher

education, this relevance serves to ensure stability, efficiency, and excellence in the development of

institutional activities. The study's objective was to analyze the patterns of publication, collaboration, and

evolution of research on hidden costs in higher education. A bibliometric methodology was used, with the

search for documents in the Scopus and Web of Science databases. This search resulted in a total of 152

documents published from 2015-2023. The evolution of the production, the most cited authors, the countries

with the highest production, the co-occurrence of keywords, and an author network analysis were identified.

The results show that the distribution of documents is 44.73% for Scopus and 55.27% for WoS. The scientific

production increased from 5 publications in 2015 to 23 in 2023. The United Kingdom is the country with the

largest amount of research and Europe stands out as the continent with the largest contribution in this area. The

authors with the most publications are Armstrong, N., Kleijnen, J., and Worthy, G. The constant increase in

scientific production linked to hidden costs in higher education is evident. Such growth translates into a

significant increase in publications and citations, thus reflecting the relevance and interest in the subject.

Key-Words: - Bibliometric analysis, hidden costs, higher education, financial planning, financial sustainability,

institutional activities, operational efficiency, scientific production.

Received: April 7, 2023. Revised: November 2, 2023. Accepted: November 14, 2023. Published: December 1, 2023.

1 Introduction

Effective management of hidden costs has proven to

be a critical factor for the competitiveness and

sustainability of organizations in a challenging

business environment, [1]. Consideration of

Strategic Cost Management (SCM) has become

essential to achieve not only cost reduction but also

improved competitiveness in a constantly evolving

marketplace, [2]. However, the focus on SCM is not

exclusively internal, Ogutu and others, [3], highlight

how the identification of costs not only depends on

internal factors but is also influenced by structural

aspects of the sector and systemic factors, which

reinforces the need for effective differentiation

through logistics optimization, [4].

Hidden costs are described as those that are not

only difficult to measure, but also often invisible in

accounting or management reports, [5]. In this

sense, [6], consider the identification and

measurement of hidden costs, which permeate the

organization's operations, as a competitive

advantage. In a constantly evolving market, where

simply knowing production costs is no longer

enough, Souza and others, [6], emphasize the need

for more complete and detailed information,

highlighting the role of identification and

measurement of hidden costs as an essential tool for

management.

According to, [7], hidden costs can negatively

bias the evaluation of the impact of strategic

decisions by masking key costs for management.

The authors in, [8], point out that these costs, often

ignored due to their complexity during the

implementation of strategic decisions, can lead

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Andrea Ramírez, Edison Calderón,

Norberto Morales, Rosa Burgos, Raúl Ramírez

E-ISSN: 2224-2899

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managers to disregard the real costs of a strategic

decision. The authors in, [9], highlight the

connection between unaccounted costs and financial

performance, underlining the importance of

addressing these areas in educational management.

Hidden costs are found in various institutional

actions and processes, this phenomenon is explained

by, [10], who stresses the importance of identifying

and accounting for environmental costs as a

manifestation of hidden costs in the construction

business environment. Similarly, [11], gives a

notion by indicating that a lack of training can

generate considerable hidden costs in an

organization, in the form of process errors, loss of

resources and time, decreased quality of work,

customer dissatisfaction, and, ultimately, loss of

revenue. Within the context of higher education, the

contemplation of hidden costs acquires a dimension

of vital importance, educational institutions are

confronted with challenges around strategic

planning and financial management, which leads to

the need for an in-depth analysis of accounting

costs, [12].

The identification and management of hidden

costs in higher and secondary education is essential

for improving the quality of education and the

financial health of educational institutions. In the

context of higher education, hidden costs include

elements such as absenteeism, occupational

accidents, staff turnover, lack of quality, and direct

productivity loss, which can amount to up to

$12,000 per person per year, [13]. In particular,

faculty turnover in higher education can affect the

composition and quality of teaching staff, with

teachers who leave an institution generally being

less effective than those who stay, [14]. In the case

of secondary education in Colombia, hidden costs

are related to the low quality of public education in

comparison to private education, and the impact of

this difference on household choices for one

educational option over another, [15].

In the organizational and accounting field in

general, it is important to consider a wide range of

costs, including direct and indirect costs,

opportunity costs, and quality costs, when designing

strategies in their processes to enter and remain in

force in emerging markets, [16]. For the operation

of an organization, it is necessary to consider not

only accounting costs, but also hidden costs and

other factors that can affect profitability, [17].

Hidden costs are those costs that are not easily

identifiable or quantifiable, but that can have a

significant impact on the profitability and success of

an organization, [18], [19].

The authors in, [20], [21], suggest that the hidden

costs derived from the lack of emotional and

psychological well-being can have economic

repercussions, so it is essential to prioritize the

safety and both physical and mental well-being of

students. This will not only promote individual

academic achievement, but also the competitiveness

and prestige of the educational institution, these

aspects extend to broader areas, such as hidden costs

for students and their families, costs linked to

extracurricular programs, and sports activities, [15].

The hidden costs in higher education can vary in

nature and origin, yet all represent significant

barriers for students and academics alike. On one

hand, the hidden costs associated with applying for

financial aid, as documented in, [8], include the

complexity of the FAFSA process and the

challenges of the verification process, which can

affect a student's eligibility for financial aid and,

ultimately, their decision to enroll in an educational

institution. On the other hand, [22], highlights the

hidden costs related to engaging with network

technologies such as Twitter and Facebook, which

are essential for contemporary academic activities.

Online harassment in these spaces,

disproportionately affecting women and individuals

from certain races or ethnicities, can lead to self-

censorship and negatively impact the health and

well-being of academics, as well as diversity and

innovation in academic research.

The importance of this issue has led several

authors to discuss how to address and mitigate

hidden costs in the context of higher education, to

address hidden costs educational institutions must

implement effective financial risk management

policies and transparent communication with the

broader educational community, [23]. Hidden costs

are important to implement for proper resource

management, improve the efficiency and

effectiveness of education, and ensure equitable

access to quality education for all students, [15]. For

example, hidden costs arise such as those related to

the maintenance and repair of facilities, teacher and

administrative staff turnover, expenses arising from

the cancellation of educational programs, and costs

generated by student dissatisfaction, these elements,

although not initially contemplated in the initial

calculations, have a financial and strategic impact

on educational institutions, [11].

The efficient management of hidden costs can

contribute significantly to improving the

profitability, competitiveness, and long-term

sustainability of academic institutions, [24]. The

identification and analysis of these latent costs

become fundamental pillars for strategic and

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effective management in the educational context,

generating especially valuable benefits in the human

sphere, which is one of the most relevant elements,

[19], [25]. Effective cost management through

adequate financial planning demands an institutional

culture that allows early detection and mitigation of

its impact on the organization, [26].

These costs, instead of being accounting costs,

are understood as economic costs due to their link

with resource scarcity and opportunity costs,

allowing their application in management, [5].

Hence, unskilled labor can be a driver of these

hidden costs, [9]. Four main categories of activities

are identified that tend to accumulate more hidden

costs (Table 1): logistics activities, balancing

operations, quality-linked actions, and change

operations, [27]. Consequently, proactive, and

accurate consideration of these latent economic

factors becomes essential for effective management

in various contexts, including the field of higher

education.

Overcoming the obstacles and limitations

associated with the identification and management

of these costs requires a comprehensive and

systematic approach, [28]. In general terms,

research in this area continues to evolve, and it is

anticipated that in the future new categories of

hidden costs will be identified and more advanced

tools and methodologies for their detection and

management will be forged. The identification and

analysis of hidden costs play a crucial role in

strategic management, enabling higher education

institutions to make informed decisions about

educational projects and programs, [10]. This

approach has driven research on this topic;

therefore, this research performs a comprehensive

bibliometric analysis to identify trends, influential

authors, and relevant countries on the topic,

assessing the evolution of research and future

perspectives in higher education and other sectors,

[29], [30].

Table 1. Hidden costs

Activities

Description

Logistics

operations

These costs, linked to the handling of

materials, are generated by a variety of

professionals, and include the costs of

receiving, storage, internal distribution,

shipping, and transportation.

Balance

operations

These ensure harmony between demand,

processing, and delivery of materials,

involving personnel costs, procurement of

materials, and the prompt availability of

these resources.

Quality

These costs are linked to product quality,

extending beyond the simple perception of

final product control.

Change

operations

These comprise alterations in products and

specifications, production costs, quality-

related costs, and the costs associated with

having a structure that can easily adapt to

the change process.

Dysfunctions

Description

Surplus

These refer to remuneration given without

obtaining equivalent work in return, which

may arise from severance payments or

personnel shortages.

Overconsumption

Use of energy, materials, and supplies

whose cost would be reduced if the

company did not have to solve faults or

problems.

Overtime

Time spent on troubleshooting rather than

on actual production.

Opportunity cost

Missed opportunities related to the

manufacture and/or marketing of a

product.

Source: Benin and others, [27].

2 Methodology

Data Sources

A thorough bibliometric analysis was carried out

using two of the most prestigious databases in the

academic field, Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS),

[31]. As mentioned by, [32], this methodology aims

to understand and evaluate the scientific production

of a specific topic through indicators that measure

the productivity and quality of research. In this

sense, the evolution of scientific production, the

most cited authors, the countries with the highest

production, the co-occurrence of keywords, and

network analysis were identified. The study period

established goes from 2015 to 2023.

Scopus and WoS stand out as top-tier research

platforms, providing comprehensive facilities for

exploring, assessing, and disseminating knowledge

across a range of fields including the sciences,

social sciences, arts, and humanities. These

databases play a pivotal role in streamlining and

enhancing the processes involved in scientific

research, [33].

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A strategic search was conducted on both

platforms, using the search terms hidden cost and

higher education. First, for Scopus, the search was

performed in the title section, abstract, and

keywords. The following search algorithm was

obtained: ("hidden costs" OR "invisible costs" OR

"unaccounted costs" OR "unseen costs" OR

"unmeasured costs") AND ("higher education" OR

"organizations" OR "enterprises"). The WoS

platform was searched for (costs OR expenses OR

expenditures) AND (hidden OR indirect OR

unaccounted OR unplanned OR unforeseen).

Table 2. Search parameters for document filtering

Type

WoS

Scopus

Title, abstract,

keywords

2359

2239

Type of document

1354

1223

Year of publication

559

832

Categories

Global Business

And Organizational

Excellence

0.52

Business and

International

Management

(Q2)

Strategic

Management

Journal

8.5

Business and

International

Management

(Q1)

Educational

Evaluation and

Policy Analysis

1.83

Education (Q1)

British Accounting

Review

1.28

Accounting (Q1)

Sustainability

0.66

Geography,

Planning and

Development

(Q1)

Journal of Business

Ethics

2.59

Arts and

Humanities (Q1)

Area

0.82

Geography,

Planning and

Development

(Q1)

Higher Education

Quarterly

0.77

Education (Q1)

International Journal

Of Sustainability In

Higher Education

0.75

Education (Q1)

Energy

1.99

Building and

Construction

(Q1)

Source: Prepared by the authors

Bibliometric Map

Figure 5 shows the patterns and relationships

between the keywords most used by researchers in

the set of documents analyzed. It is possible to

observe the frequency with which the keywords are

linked, which are: Economic burden, care, costs,

costs, cost-effectiveness, and health care costs.

These keywords are the most used by researchers to

refer to the topic of hidden costs and their impact

on business management.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Stanford University

State University System of Florida

China Agricultural University

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

University of Toronto

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Universidad de Málaga

University of Illinois System

University of Johannesburg

Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3

0 2 4 6 8 10

American Accounting Association

American Anthropological Association

Baylor University

Boston University

Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und…

Canadian Institutes of Health Research

European Regional Development Fund

Tillväxtverket

Ministry of Education of the People's…

National Natural Science Foundation…

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Fig. 5. WoS keyword concurrence diagram

Source: Own elaboration using WoS data, with the

VOSviewer program.

Figure 6 represents the authorial concurrence

map, which shows the collaboration networks

among the authors who have published on the topic

of hidden costs and higher education. It can be seen

that of the total number of authors only 20 present

collaboration among themselves, and have

collaborated to a greater extent, and represent a

clearly defined cluster within the diagram, the

authors are: Adhikari C, Cerda A, Chattu Vk, Chuc

N, Correia T, Garcia L, Jakovljevic M, Than Hn,

Khatri Rb, Kouassi E, Krstic K, Kumara As, Liu

Ys, Mariita Rm, Osabohien R, Simonyan M, Toan

Tk, Varjacic M, Wang I, Wijeretne T.

Fig. 6: WoS author concurrence diagram

Source: Own elaboration using WoS data, with the

VOSviewer program.

Figure 7 presents the patterns and relationships

between the keywords most used by researchers,

showing the frequency with which, the keywords

are linked, which include terms such as: decision-

making, process, economic sciences, economics,

and social effects. These keywords are the most

used by researchers to refer to the impact of hidden

costs on the economy of companies and industry in

general.

Fig. 7: Keyword concurrence diagram in Scopus

Source: Own elaboration using Scopus data, with the

VOSviewer program.

Figure 8 presents a concurrence map showing

the collaboration networks among the authors. In

this map, it can be seen that out of the total of 98

authors, only 14 are selections that present a

connection with each other, have collaborated to a

greater extent, and represent a clearly defined

cluster within the diagram, the authors are: Dey A,

Ganesham P, Gupta A, Kumar V, Mahanta H, Patel

C, Patel M, Patel R, Sahay N, Sahu B, Shinde C,

Tole P, Verma S, Vivekanandna P.

Fig. 8: Scopus author concurrence diagram

Source: Own elaboration using data from Scopus, with

the VOSviewer program.

Table 7 shows the thematic variety of the main

research, although this work focuses on hidden

costs in higher education, it addresses topics

ranging from educational technology to geopolitics

in higher education. Recent works denote current

issues and the diversity of journals in which they

were published, the articles point to the breadth of

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academic fields and the variability in the number of

citations denotes their impact on the scientific

community.

Table 7. Top of most cited documents

Authors

Journal

Title

Year

Total

citations

[36]

International journal of

sustainable in higher

education

Barriers to energy efficiency and the uptake

of green revolving funds in Canadian

universities

2015

[22]

Learning, media, and

technology

The hidden costs of connectivity: nature and

effects of scholars’ online harassment

2021

[37]

Research in higher

education

The assumed benefits and hidden costs of

adult learners' college enrollment

2015

[38]

Area

Cosmopolitans sidestep: university life,

intimate geopolitics, and the hidden costs of

“global” citizenship

2019

[8]

Educational evaluation and

policy analysis

The hidden costs of corroboration:

estimating the effects of financial aid

verification on college enrollment

2021

[39]

Sustainability (Switzerland)

Problem-focused coping strategies,

workplace bullying, and sustainability of

heis

2020

[40]

PLOS ONE

A clinical trial to evaluate the dayzz

smartphone app on employee sleep, health,

and productivity at a large US employer

2022

[41]

2020 IFEES World

Engineering Education

Forum - Global Engineering

Deans Council, WEEF-

GEDC 2020

Ethics in Engineering Education 4.0

2020

[42]

Community College Journal

of Research and Practice

Inclusive access: a multi-institutional study

of academic outcomes from a statewide

community college automatic billing e-

textbook pilot

2023

Source: Prepared by the authors

The papers show an empirical focus on

outcomes and focus on quantitative evaluation, e.g.,

financial aid in college enrollment, effectiveness of

mobile apps, and employee productivity. This

research addresses the financial side of higher

education institutions, as well as that of students,

highlighting the interest in understanding and

quantifying the practical outcomes of interventions

and strategies. Thus, the diversity of approaches

and disciplines in the field of higher education is

evident, as well as the relevance of understanding

and solving current problems.

4 Discussion

Hidden costs acquire substantial relevance within

higher education institutions, given their nature of

not being easily visible or identifiable to the naked

eye, which has a direct impact on their operation

and effectiveness, [43]. According to, [44], in this

context, hidden costs can manifest themselves with

both direct and indirect effects generated by

elements such as occupational accidents, affecting

both students and the institution itself. Similarly,

[1], raises the possibility that these hidden costs are

also present in educational institutions, where the

lack of conflict resolution and the lack of a

professionalized administration impact the quality

of teaching and operational efficiency, at all stages

from implementation to the provision of final

services, [45]. It is also important to consider, [41],

assertions that hidden costs can also result from

underinvestment in fundamental public services

such as education and health, essential elements for

the well-being of society.

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In this study, several aspects have been

examined, related to hidden costs that are often not

visible at first glance and have important

implications in educational management, [46].

Jointly, hidden costs have been identified in areas

such as investment in student welfare, costs derived

from untapped opportunities, and educational

resource management costs, [47]. As well as costs

linked to inefficient use of resources, costs

associated with student training and support

programs, and costs related to campus safety, [48].

Each of these components demonstrates how

hidden costs impact the quality and efficiency of

higher education, highlighting the importance of

addressing them effectively.

It is essential that higher education institutions

can identify and effectively manage these hidden

costs to optimize their profitability and long-term

sustainability, [49]. In this context, reducing costs

linked to quality becomes relevant by

implementing robust quality control systems and

fostering continuous improvement of educational

processes, [50]. Costs related to inventory

management can be decreased by adopting

effective educational resource management systems

and optimizing educational logistics, [51].

In the context of higher education, hidden costs

can also generate social and environmental

impacts, [52]. For example, costs associated with

safety can be directly related to accidents in the

academic environment and injuries that affect the

health and well-being of students and staff, [53]. In

a similar area, the costs allocated to training and

skills development of teachers and administrative

staff can positively influence job satisfaction and

the efficiency of the work performed, thus

improving the overall quality of the education

offered, [54].

Hidden costs are a concern that encompasses a

variety of areas, including higher education and the

social and economic sphere in general. Ruiz and

others, [55], scholars agree that resource planning

is essential in the management of higher education

institutions, as it enables the organization and

control of resources, as well as the evaluation of

costs. Each of these authors adopts a unique

perspective when examining different aspects, in

the same way, [56], highlight hidden costs linked to

social emergencies, highlighting examples such as

the decline of human capital in educational

institutions, emphasize how hidden costs can

transcend educational boundaries and manifest

themselves in social dimensions in a significant

way.

Due to the continued relevance of this challenge

in the field of educational education, researchers

have also put forward strategies to address these

hidden costs, as, [57], expose, these authors

emphasize the need to implement effective quality

controls and to have trained personnel, proposing

the creation of performance indicators, conducting

audits, and promoting communication and

teamwork. Contrasting this perspective, De Souza

and others, [58], argue that factors contributing to

the occurrence of hidden costs include lack of

planning, insufficient staff training, lack of quality

control, and omission of preventive maintenance of

equipment. At the same time, it the important to

identify and measure these costs in the educational

setting to implement measures that reduce them

and, therefore, improve the efficiency and

effectiveness of institutions. Likewise, [56],

considers that cost reduction in general is a

fundamental strategy to improve the finances of

educational institutions, proposing techniques such

as optimizing the use of resources, reducing supply

costs, improving teaching processes, and

minimizing financing costs as ways to achieve this.

5 Conclusions

It is necessary to deepen and broaden the research

on hidden costs in the context of higher education,

to strengthen academic institutions in the

identification and optimal management of their

resources. This field of research encompasses

topics ranging from financial management, human

resource management, supply chain logistics, and

risk management. In this sense, this area is not only

intended to enrich the understanding of hidden

costs in the higher education environment but also

promises to unveil novel practices and approaches

that will generate improvements in the

effectiveness of hidden cost detection and

management.

The growth in scientific production is evident,

such growth translates into a significant increase in

the number of publications and citations, and this

increase shows the relevance and interest of

researchers in hidden costs. Through rigorous

bibliometric analysis, it is suggested that the most

advanced and promising areas of research are those

that focus on the identification, quantification, and

mitigation of hidden costs. In the same sense, the

management of these costs is established as a

primary principle, to foster the progress of

educational institutions and enhance their capacity

to provide an excellent educational service.

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Norberto Morales, Rosa Burgos, Raúl Ramírez

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In the Scopus and WoS databases, a relevant

number of papers and research related to hidden

costs in higher education are highlighted. This

highlights the commitment of academics and

experts to study this topic. There is a concentration

of European authors, which indicates a particular

emphasis on this geographic region. Likewise, an

active interaction among researchers is identified,

which allows for the exchange of ideas and the

socialization of their findings. This research

promises to enrich both knowledge and financial

practices, fostering a more robust and competitive

academic environment, which is an advantage for

the academic community and educational

management.

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

The authors equally contributed to the present

research, at all stages from the formulation of the

problem to the final findings and solution.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare

that are relevant to the content of this article.

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)

This article is published under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.e

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