Environmental Taxation: Role in Promotion of the Pro-Environmental
Behaviour
TETIANA VASILYEVA
Institute of Business, Economics and Management,
Sumy State University, Sumy,
UKRAINE
YARYNA SAMUSEVYCH
Department of Accounting and Taxation,
Sumy State University, Sumy,
UKRAINE
VITALINA BABENKO
Department of Banking Business and Financial Technologies,
V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Kharkiv,
UKRAINE
SVITLANA BESTUZHEVA
Department of International Economics and Management,
Simon Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics, Kharkiv,
UKRAINE
SVITLANA BONDARENKO
Department of Journalism,
National Aviation University, Kyiv,
UKRAINE
IRYNA NESTERENKO
Department of Accounting, Audit and Taxation
State Biotechnological University, Kharkіv,
UKRAINE
Abstract: - The purpose of the article is to investigate the potential of environmental taxation in the regulation
of ecological responsibility and ensuring the pro-environmental behaviour of economic entities. To study the
theoretical basis of environmental taxation and environmentally responsible behaviour, a bibliometric analysis
of key words in scientific articles published on this topic was conducted. The results of the bibliometric
analysis show that aspects of environmentally responsible behaviour are presented in the list of keywords that
mediate the study of environmental taxation. Thus, pro-environmental behaviour is defined by the necessity of
health risks avoiding, clean energy technology providing, waste generating reducing etc. The impact of
environmental taxes on various aspects of environmentally responsible behaviour was modelled on the sample
of six European countries (Belgium, France, Austria; Finland and Denmark) for 1994-2019. The results of the
calculations show that environmental taxes have limited effectiveness in regulating various aspects of
environmental liability. So, the average growth of environmental taxes revenue by 1 USD million provides a
decrease in the Eco-Innovation Index by 0.001 point; the slow rise in CO2 emissions (less than 0.000 %) and
the growth in tobacco use (about 0.000 %). On the other hand, environmental taxes do not influence the
country’s environmental performance, as well as on the total alcohol consumption and renewable electricity
consumption and output. Thus, an approach to the establishment of tax benefits for enterprises was proposed,
considering the results of changes in the environmentally harmful effects they produce.
Key-Words: - Environmental taxes; Environmental behaviour; Environmental footprint; Green consumption;
Regression analysis
Received: May 19, 2022. Revised: December 11, 2022. Accepted: January 13, 2023. Published: February 2, 2023.
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2023.20.37
Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
Vitalina Babenko, Svitlana Bestuzheva,
Svitlana Bondarenko, Iryna Nesterenko
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
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1 Introduction
The issue of sustainable development and solving
global environmental problems has remained
relevant for decades. Lyeonov et al., [1] prove that
at the present stage environmental aspects are
important in shaping the country's image and
ensuring its competitiveness. Current research
indicates that, despite the widespread global
environmental problems, their solution is impossible
without the use of special regulatory tools.
Thus, environmental aspects play a significant
role in shaping public energy policy, [2], [3],
ensuring macroeconomic stability and economic
development, [4], [5], investment attractiveness of
the country, [6], [7], [8], [9] and its security, [10].
Solving environmental problems is becoming
relevant not only at the national but also at the
regional level, especially in the context of the global
trend towards decentralization of territories, [11],
[12].
It is important that sustainable development in
general and the improvement of its environmental
aspects depend not only on the effectiveness of
regulatory instruments but also on the overall level
of quality of public administration, [13], [14]. Thus,
the penetration of environmental protection tasks
into all spheres and parts of the national economy
has led to the emergence of a new global trend - the
formation of a circular economy, [15], [16]. In the
era of rapid development of digital technologies, the
transition to a circular economy is often associated
with the use of smart grids, [17], [18], [19], closed-
loop supply chains, [20], [21] and the development
of smart cities, which requires the involvement of
all economic agents without exception and the
appropriate adjustment of regulatory instruments,
[22], [23].
At the same time, it is important to evaluate the
effectiveness of their use in terms of reducing the
destructive impact on the environment. It should be
noted that the reasons for the growth of harmful
environmental impacts are due not only economic
but also psychological factors.
Thus, the current trend towards increasing
environmental responsibility aims to minimize the
irrational use of the environment. This determines
both the emergence of new resource-efficient
technologies and the reduction of consumption of
goods, the production of which is environmentally
polluted, as well as responsible waste management.
It is important to identify factors that can
stimulate environmentally responsible behaviour.
Given the proliferation of environmental taxes as
regulatory tools, their effectiveness in this context
should be examined.
2 Problem Formulation
2.1 Literature Review
Given the growing scale and intensity of industrial
and agricultural production as well as other
manifestations of anthropogenic impact on the
environment. The need to form a comprehensive
and harmonized at the supranational, national and
regional levels of environmental policy is an
important priority. At the same time, one of the
most relevant aspects in terms of certain general
issues is the search for and implementation of such
instruments of state regulation of the economy that
are most effective in the context of strengthening the
level of environmental responsibility of economic
agents. Environmental responsibility is a complex
and multifaceted concept that covers not only the
need for a particular subject of economic relations to
comply with environmental legislation but also its
actions to preserve the environment and improve the
environmental situation. In the context of Ukraine's
European integration vector, it is appropriate to
consider this phenomenon from the standpoint of
Directive 2004/35 / EC, which treats environmental
liability as a type of civil liability that obliges the
polluter to take measures to prevent or eliminate the
consequences of environmental damage that existed
before it was caused, and to cover the costs of the
measures taken. In this context, it is also fair to note
that the effectiveness of environmental taxation
varies from country to country and is determined by
several factors: the design of the environmental tax
system (including the scale of tax coverage), the use
of tax revenues, differentiation of tax rates and
benefits.
Environmental responsibility is one of the key
dimensions of sustainable development. The
environmental impact of economic functioning is
closely related to social and economic perspectives,
[24]. Thus, investigations of the prospect of
environmental management strengthening should be
comprehensive and based on the stakeholder
approach. Modern research shows that the
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Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
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behaviour of economic entities is largely determined
by the level of their literacy in various fields. Thus,
the growth of financial literacy not only improves
the living standards of the population, [25], [26] but
also forms the basis for more responsible household
behaviour, [27]. At the same time, it has been
proven that the social security of the population is
largely determined by behavioural aspects, [28],
[29]. In turn, other scientists determine that financial
tools for influencing household behaviour remain
the most effective, [30], [31], [32]. Thus price
factors determine the activity of households in the
use of equipment for green energy production, [33].
Analysing the behavioural determinants of the
population, Yarovenko et al., [34], and Letunovska
et al., [35] pay considerable attention to the level of
literacy and information management, while
Brychko et al., [36] focus on issues of trust. This
suggests that government policies to promote pro-
environmental behaviour must include educational
aspects. Voronstova et al. [37] confirm that
educational initiatives are successful in shaping the
environmentally responsible consciousness of
society.
The issues of sustainable development and
environmental responsibility are becoming more
widespread in the corporate sector of the economy,
[38]. Thus, Bilan et al. [39], prove that the model of
sustainable development ensures the success of a
business and allows it to maintain its innovative
activity. It has been confirmed that investing in
sustainable development is the key to long-term
business efficiency, [40], which, among other
things, creates grounds for improving the financial
condition of enterprises, [41], [42], [43]. This
formed the basis for expanding aspects of
monitoring the development of enterprises from
traditional auditing to the formation of integrated
reporting that reflects the environmental impact
created in the process of functioning of
corporations, [44], [45]. The key components of the
implementation of a sustainable business model are
the environmental and social responsibility of
enterprises, [46], [47], [48]. Disclosure of
ecologically and socially significant measures of
corporations has a positive effect not only on the
development of enterprises but also on increasing
the country's competitiveness, [49], [50], which
shows the interest of both regulators and
corporations in the growth of the quality use of the
environment.
The results of empirical research, [51], [52]
confirm the importance of financial instruments in
ensuring the achievement of sustainable
development goals. Traditionally, tax instruments
occupy a central place in the system of state
regulation, [53]. Thus, the effectiveness of their
application is proven not only in the general
provision of macroeconomic stability but also in the
regulation of certain areas of the national economy,
[54]. Thus, adjusting the overall level and structure
of the tax burden states not only ensures economic
growth but also maximizes the share of the green
economy, [55], which in the long run creates
benefits for all economic agents, [56]. The results
obtained by Miller, [57], and Eddassi, [58] indicate
that the fiscal regime plays a significant role in
managing the country's resource potential. The
integrated effect of environmental tax instruments
has also been proven in ensuring economic, energy
and environmental security, [59]. On the other hand,
tax factors are one of the most important in
correcting the behaviour of business agents, [60]. It
is important that today, the design of tax instruments
is determined not only by the needs of the national
economy but also requires consideration of the
effects of the global tax environment, [61], [62],
[63], [64], which indicates the need for international
analysis to identify the effectiveness of tax
instruments. Thus, in European countries, there is a
stable convergent trend in the application of
environmental taxes, [65]. On the other hand, the
overall effectiveness of environmental taxes also
depends on their combination in the country, [66].
Along with the restrictions that create environmental
taxes, successful tools for sustainable development
today are identified in the growth of green
investment, which not only directly affects
environmental parameters but is also determinant of
increasing quality of life, [67] and leads before the
emergence of new sectors of the economy, [68]. The
development of a green economy and green energy
is impossible without a sufficient level of financial
security, [69], [70]. At the same time, it has been
proven that the effectiveness of regulatory
instruments is largely determined by the size of the
shadow economy, [71], [72], [73] which, along with
the development of state strategies of influence
requires an increase in economic and environmental
awareness. It is determined that the effectiveness of
the use of tax instruments depends not only on their
design but also on the perception of taxpayers, [74].
That is why the use of tax instruments for the
formation of environmentally responsible behaviour
should also consider the national mentality, [75].
The analysis shows that environmental taxes have a
significant potential to influence the regulation of
environmentally responsible behaviour.
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2.2. Methodology
The essence of environmental responsibility is
manifested through three main functions:
stimulating, compensatory and preventive, which is
to maintain a stable balance of economic and
environmental interests in the process of economic
activity through prevention, reduction and recovery
of losses in the natural environment. Therefore,
there is a need for comprehensive implementation of
the values of environmental responsibility in the
practice of management and corporate culture of the
organization. Environmental responsibility ceases to
be something coercive; it becomes an internal rule
of doing business. It is important to explore the key
factors that determine the behaviour of economic
agents, which is related to the use of the
environment and, consequently, the functioning of
environmental taxes. To this end, we will analyse
the keywords associated with the queries
«environmental responsibility», and «environmental
behaviour».
In order to determine the contextual links that
arise in the study of environmental responsibility,
we will conduct a bibliometric analysis of keywords
found in scientific articles indexed by the Scopus
database. So, the Scopus database indexes 29 510
articles containing the words “environmental
responsibility” in their titles, abstracts or keywords
lists; 225 834 articles concerning the keywords
“environmental behaviour” and 11 040 articles
concerning the keywords “environmental
behaviour”. Bibliometric analysis is conducted by
the VOSviewer 1.6.1 version using. This allows for
defining the general directions of scientific studies
arising in the process of investigating the concepts
of environmental responsibility and environmental
behaviour and the implication of environmental
taxation.
The next step of the research is devoted to the
evaluation and measurement of environmental
taxation impact on the parameters of environmental
behaviour. Given the need for an international
research context, the sample for analysis consisted
of 5 European countries in which the system of
environmental taxation is quite extensive and
comprehensive (France, Austria, Finland, Denmark,
Belgium).
The main factor variable is the level of the tax
burden on environmental taxes (the total amount of
revenues from environmental taxes). At the same
time, to consider the national specifics of countries,
the models take into account the level of national
security (a complex parameter of environmental,
economic and energy security), calculated according
to Štreimikienė et al. The results of theoretical
investigations formed a background to choose the
indicators of environmentally responsible
behaviour. Parameters indicating pro-environmental
behaviour are divided into three groups.
The first group resulting indicators are selected
indices that characterize the state of the environment
(Eco-Innovation Index, Environmental Performance
Index) with the study period is 2012–2019.
The second group of indicators reflect the
behaviour of economic entities in dealing with the
environment (CO2 emissions from manufacturing
industries and construction, % of total fuel
combustion; CO2 emissions from transport, % of
total fuel combustion; prevalence of current tobacco
use, % of adults; total alcohol consumption per
capita, litres of pure alcohol, projected estimates,
15+ years of age; renewable electricity output, % of
total electricity output; renewable energy
consumption, % of total final energy consumption).
The analysis period for which the study was
conducted includes 1994–2019.
Analysis of the available statistics using the
Hausman test showed that a panel regression model
with random effects should be chosen. At the same
time, to test the hypothesis of the presence of
delayed effects, we will also conduct an analysis
considering time lags lasting from one to three
years.
The proposed methodology combines the
methods of theoretical and empirical analysis, which
allows substantiating the channels of environmental
taxation influence on ensuring environmentally
responsible behaviour, as well as empirically
verifying the presence of such influence by
measuring its strength and direction. Choosing the
integral index of national security as a control
variable makes it possible to take into account the
differences in the initial conditions that have
developed in the countries. The proposed approach
also allows for assessing the presence of a delayed
impact, which is often observed when using
economic instruments of indirect action. It should be
noted that this study differs from existing ones both
in the set of resulting and factor variables and in the
combination of analysis methods.
Despite this, the proposed methodology has
certain limitations. Thus, due to the diversity of
environmental taxation systems, the effects
identified for the studied sample of countries cannot
be extended to other countries automatically,
without additional research. At the same time, for a
better interpretation of the channels of influence of
environmental taxation on environmentally
responsible behaviour, the results of economic and
mathematical modelling should be supplemented
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Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
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with the results of sociological surveys. At the same
time, the developed methodology can also be
adapted to assess the effects of different specific tax
instruments on environmentally responsible
behaviour.
3 Problem Solution
3.1 Results of the Analysis of the Contextual
Relationships in the Chain “Environmental
Responsibility – Environmental Behaviour –
Environmental Tax”
Thus, Fig. 1 presents the results of the bibliometric
analysis of keywords matching for environmental
responsibility. The analysis showed the presence of
four clusters of keywords.
The largest of the identified clusters (red) is
formed by 122 keywords, among which the most
of nature», «ecology», «biodiversity», «ecosystem»
and others, which characterize the target orientation
of environmentally responsible behaviour of
economic entities.
The latest cluster (yellow) contains 68 keywords,
including «waste disposal», «recycling», «pollution
control», «government regulation», «environmental
monitoring», «landfill», and «environmental
technology», which generally represent the
instrumental components of the implementation of
Fig. 1: Results of bibliometric analysis of keywords co-occurrence on the request «environmental
responsibility»
Note: red colour indicates the keywords of scientific research concerning the social determinants of pro-environmental
behaviour; green colour – keywords concerning the corporate environmental responsibility; blue colour – keywords
concerning the targets of environmental behaviour ensuring; yellow colour – concerning the instruments of environmental
behaviour ensuring.
Source: VOSviewer 1.6.1 results
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significant are «human (humans)», «responsibility»,
«environmental factor», «public health», «social
behaviour», «motivation», «social psychology» etc.,
which generally reflects the influence of the level of
social development on the formation of
environmentally responsible behaviour.
The second largest cluster (green) combines 115
keywords, among which should be noted «corporate
social responsibility», «sustainability», «sustainable
development», «corporate governance», and
«environmental impact», which generally reflects
the context of corporate responsibility for the
preservation of the environment.
The third (blue) cluster consists of 103
keywords, including «environmental protection»,
«conservation
pro-environmental behaviour of economic agents.
We will also analyse the contextual connections
that arise in the study of the concept of
«environmental behaviour» (Fig. 2).
The red cluster includes 360 keywords, (the most
significant are «environmental exposure», «risk
assessment», «environmental impact», «ecology»,
«water pollutants», «animal», «reproduction»,
«degradation», «soil», «toxicity») and describes the
context of the general anthropogenic impact on the
environment and the results of changes in the
environment in the process of this impact. The green
cluster contains 258 keywords, including «stress»,
«phenotype», «mental disease», «memory», «animal
experiment», «brain function», and «emotion»,
Fig. 2: Results of bibliometric analysis of keywords co-occurrence on the request «environmental
behaviour»
Note: red colour indicates the keywords of scientific research concerning the environmental consequences of
anthropogenic impact; green colour – keywords concerning the peculiarities of wildlife due to ecological and climatic
changes; blue colour – keywords concerning the social threats determined by environmental impact; yellow colour –
concerning the psychological determinants of environmental behaviour.
Source: VOSviewer 1.6.1 results
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which reflect the context of changes in the
functioning of living organisms in the process of
ecological and climatic changes, including in
relation to human development. The blue cluster
combines 215 keywords, the most important of
which are «human», «risk factor», «demography»,
«mortality», «smoking», «obesity», «epidemic»,
«lifestyle», «health behaviour», «diet», «age»,
which characterize the social threats that arise as a
result of destructive anthropogenic impact on the
environment. The yellow cluster includes 111
keywords, including «psychological aspect»,
«family», «adoption», «adolescent», «attitude»,
«genetics», and «individuality», which reflect the
socio-psychological basis for the formation of pro-
environmental behaviour. Thus, it is quite
interesting that the context of studying the concepts
of environmental responsibility and environmental
behaviour to a greater extent includes the
manifestations of these concepts and the factors that
determine them.
In turn, it is important to study the context of the
study of environmental taxes (Fig. 3).
The analysis revealed the presence of six clusters
of keywords that mediate contextual links in the
study of environmental taxation. The largest red
cluster contains 158 keywords, among which the
most common are «economics», «human», «waste
management», «adult», «policy», and «willingness
to pay», which generally reflects the relationship of
environmental tax policy with the activities of
economic entities. The second largest cluster (green)
contains 124 keywords, the most common of which
are «carbon dioxide», «energy policy», «gas
emissions», «life cycle», «energy efficiency»,
«fossil fuels», «renewable resource», «energy
conservations». Thus, this cluster deals with the
relationship between environmental taxation and
energy policy and environmental pollution. The next
largest cluster (blue) includes 108 keywords, among
which such words as «economic instrument», «tax
reform», «regulatory approach», «pollution
control», «sustainability», «political economy» etc.
occupy a special place. In general, this cluster
reflects the regulatory function of environmental
taxation in ensuring the sustainability of the national
economy. The yellow cluster includes 73 words,
among which
Fig. 3: Results of bibliometric analysis of keywords co-occurrence on the request «environmental tax»
Note: red colour indicates the keywords of scientific research concerning the economic activity determined by
environmental tax policy; green colour – keywords concerning the energy policy and environmental tax interaction; blue
colour – keywords concerning the environmental taxation impact on the sustainability ensuring; yellow colour –
concerning the targets of environmental taxes implication; purple colour – parameters of the economic and environmental
performance of the enterprises; turquoise colour – environmental impact on the households.
Source: VOSviewer 1.6.1 results
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should be noted such aspects as «emission control»,
«climate change», «emissions trading»,
«environmental policy», and «competitiveness»,
which reflect the target orientation of environmental
tax instruments. The last two clusters are much
smaller. Thus, the purple cluster consists of 13
keywords, such as «profitability», «supply chains»,
and «manufacturing», which largely reflect the
resulting parameters of enterprise development,
which are related to environmental taxation. In turn,
the last (turquoise) cluster is represented by the
keywords «greenhouse effect», which characterizes
the relationship of environmental taxation with
households. Thus, it can be noted that an important
role in the development of environmental taxation
(both in its establishment and in ensuring its
effectiveness) is played by the relationship with the
subjects of taxation, which confirms the analysis.
3.2 Results of the Assessment of the
Environmental Impact on the Pro-
Environmental Behaviour Ensuring
The next step is to study the causal links that arise
between environmental taxes and pro-environmental
behaviour indicators. Regression results of the
assessment of environmental taxes on the Eco-
Innovation and Environmental Performance indices
are presented in Tables 1-2.
It should be noted that the obtained results were
statistically significant, which allows us to
adequately interpret the impact of environmental
taxation parameters on the country's economy from
the point of view of environmental innovations and
environmental performance. Income from
environmental taxes is characterized by an inverse
relationship with the country's position on the eco-
innovation index. This indicates the fact that
potential environmental taxpayers are faced with a
choice - to continue to carry out their activities
under current conditions and, accordingly, pay
additional taxes, or to implement environmental
innovations, which will reduce the tax base and the
amount of revenues from environmental taxes. It is
important that such an effect is observed in a period
without a time lag, which affects the operational
efficiency of environmental taxes. On the other
hand, despite the statistical significance of the built
model, the connection between revenues from
environmental taxes and the environmental
performance of the country turned out to be
unconfirmed.
Table 1. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ Eco-Innovation Index
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
-0.001
0.000
0.042
-0.001
0.000
**
National security Index
16.375
7.539
0.030
1.600
31.150
**
Constant
132.635
17.633
0.000
98.075
167.195
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.135
-0.001
0.000
National security Index
14.918
9.776
0.127
-4.243
34.078
Constant
127.808
11.469
0.000
105.329
150.286
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.104
-0.001
0.000
National security Index
46.835
29.806
0.116
-11.584
105.254
Constant
102.857
22.981
0.000
57.814
147.899
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.262
-0.001
0.000
National security Index
47.248
15.511
0.002
16.847
77.650
***
Constant
99.855
13.678
0.000
73.047
126.663
***
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
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Table 2. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ Environmental
Performance Index
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.629
0.000
0.000
National security Index
19.296
11.141
0.083
-2.540
41.131
*
Constant
63.091
8.560
0.000
46.313
79.869
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.400
0.000
0.000
National security Index
13.845
13.600
0.309
-12.811
40.500
Constant
65.995
10.097
0.000
46.205
85.786
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.748
0.000
0.000
National security Index
21.937
19.868
0.270
-17.004
60.877
Constant
59.808
15.290
0.000
29.840
89.775
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.650
0.000
0.000
National security Index
26.583
15.937
0.095
-4.653
57.819
*
Constant
55.814
12.750
0.000
30.824
80.804
***
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
The next step is to investigate the impact of
environmental taxes on the environmental impact of
businesses and households. Thus, the general results
of the built panel regression models with random
effects, reflecting the effects of environmental taxes
on certain areas of environmentally related
behaviour of economic entities, are presented in
Tables 3-8.
The first pair of studied indicators characterize
the indicators of CO2 emissions from production
and transport, which characterizes the level of
environmentally responsible behaviour for both
enterprises and households. Thus, the data in Table
3 show that environmental taxes have a weak
quantitative but statistically significant positive
effect on the growth of CO2 emissions from
industry and construction, which is observed in
calculations performed with different lengths of
time lag. This indicates the fact that the growth of
environmental taxes does not encourage companies
to switch to less environmentally polluting
technologies. Similar trends are also observed with
regard to the impact of environmental taxes on CO2
emissions from transport (Table 4).
Table 3. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ CO2 emissions from
manufacturing industries and construction
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
1.196
1.579
0.449
-1.900
4.291
Constant
18.643
1.787
0.000
15.141
22.146
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
-0.434
1.515
0.774
-3.403
2.535
Constant
19.654
1.796
0.000
16.134
23.174
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
-2.132
1.418
0.133
-4.912
0.648
Constant
20.658
1.974
0.000
16.788
24.528
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
-2.319
1.409
0.100
-5.081
0.443
Constant
20.807
2.010
0.000
16.866
24.747
***
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
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Svitlana Bondarenko, Iryna Nesterenko
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Table 4. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ CO2 emissions from
transport
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
16.048
1.574
0.000
12.964
19.132
***
Constant
17.048
2.223
0.000
12.691
21.404
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
12.098
1.870
0.000
8.433
15.764
***
Constant
18.671
2.317
0.000
14.129
23.213
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
11.510
1.828
0.000
7.926
15.093
***
Constant
18.746
2.277
0.000
14.283
23.209
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
***
National security Index
11.564
1.865
0.000
7.909
15.218
***
Constant
18.804
2.349
0.000
14.200
23.409
***
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
Thus, the presence of a statistically significant
correlation indicates that the level of air pollution
from transport emissions is gradually increasing,
which continues to increase in terms of paying
environmental taxes.
The next group of studied indicators
characterizes the behavioural trends of the
population of countries, which reflect the level of
their responsibility, including environmental. Thus,
the results of the assessment of the impact of
environmental taxes on current tobacco use
presented in Table 5 showed a positive statistically
significant relationship. At the same time, the
analysis of the obtained coefficients shows that the
revealed relationship is direct - the increase in
revenues from environmental taxes is associated
with an increase in tobacco consumption. It is
important that this relationship has a rather low level
of coefficients, but it is also observed with a one-
year lag introduced into the model. This points to
the fact that environmental taxes are not an effective
tool to influence the environmentally harmful habits
of the population. On the other hand, the results of
assessing the impact of environmental taxes on the
intensity of alcohol consumption (Table 6) did not
allow obtaining statistically significant results.
Thus, environmental taxes are not a relevant tool for
regulating this aspect of life. The conducted
research proves that financial levers are insufficient
to stimulate the considered aspects of ecologically
responsible behavior of the population.
Table 5. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ prevalence of current
tobacco use
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.046
0.000
0.000
**
National security Index
-7.740
3.231
0.017
-14.073
-1.407
**
Constant
28.969
3.643
0.000
21.828
36.110
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.050
0.000
0.000
*
National security Index
-6.245
3.306
0.059
-12.724
0.234
*
Constant
27.494
4.693
0.000
18.295
36.692
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.192
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-8.624
3.175
0.007
-14.846
-2.401
***
Constant
31.430
3.839
0.000
23.907
38.954
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.208
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-8.843
2.558
0.001
-13.858
-3.829
***
Constant
31.612
4.125
0.000
23.527
39.696
***
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DOI: 10.37394/23207.2023.20.37
Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
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Svitlana Bondarenko, Iryna Nesterenko
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
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Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
Table 6. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ total alcohol
consumption per capita
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.551
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-3.085
1.201
0.010
-5.439
-0.732
**
Constant
13.838
0.823
0.000
12.224
15.452
***
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.996
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-3.982
0.807
0.000
-5.564
-2.400
***
Constant
14.607
0.607
0.000
13.417
15.796
***
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.667
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-3.146
1.175
0.007
-5.449
-0.843
***
Constant
14.099
0.802
0.000
12.526
15.671
***
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.439
0.000
0.000
National security Index
-2.204
0.920
0.017
-4.006
-0.401
**
Constant
13.409
0.657
0.000
12.121
14.697
***
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
The last block of the studied indicators
characterizes the intensity of the transition of
economic entities to the production and
consumption of renewable energy. It should be
noted that the results presented in Table 7 and in
Table 8 indicate that environmental taxes are almost
ineffective in regulating this behaviour of economic
entities. Moreover, the studied effects do not appear
at different durations of time lags. Thus, given the
low efficiency of environmental taxes in regulating
environmentally responsible behaviour, we note the
need to find ways to improve their impact on the
activities of economic entities. When using these
tools, one should consider the risks that may
threaten: the growth of environmental tax arrears,
reducing the solvency and financial stability of the
taxpayer, tax evasion and the use of poor-quality
treatment facilities. One of the promising options for
reducing pollutant emissions may be a permit to
deduct the cost of environmental costs from the
amount of environmental payments, as well as the
possibility of tax holidays for environmental
taxpayers, temporary exemption from taxation of
certain transactions and exclusion from the tax base
projects.
Table 7. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ renewable electricity
output
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
t-value
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.08
0.939
0.000
0.000
National security Index
41.482
5.676
7.31
0.000
30.357
52.607
***
Constant
8.016
14.716
0.55
0.586
-20.826
36.858
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.48
0.630
0.000
0.000
National security Index
36.858
5.697
6.47
0.000
25.691
48.024
***
Constant
10.839
14.718
0.74
0.461
-18.008
39.686
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.88
0.377
0.000
0.000
National security Index
32.786
5.684
5.77
0.000
21.646
43.926
***
Constant
13.520
14.692
0.92
0.357
-15.277
42.316
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.97
0.332
0.000
0.000
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DOI: 10.37394/23207.2023.20.37
Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
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Svitlana Bondarenko, Iryna Nesterenko
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
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National security Index
30.929
5.689
5.44
0.000
19.779
42.080
***
Constant
14.191
14.688
0.97
0.334
-14.597
42.979
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
Table 8. Results of the assessment of environmental taxation impact on the countries’ renewable energy
consumption
Variable
Coef.
St.Err.
t-value
p-value
[95% Conf
Interval]
Sig
Model 1 (without lag)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.86
0.391
0.000
0.000
National security Index
26.357
2.654
9.93
0.000
21.155
31.559
***
Constant
4.085
5.591
0.73
0.465
-6.874
15.044
Model 2 (lag 1 year)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
0.25
0.805
0.000
0.000
National security Index
25.160
2.541
9.90
0.000
20.179
30.140
***
Constant
4.997
5.627
0.89
0.375
-6.032
16.026
Model 3 (lag 2 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.25
0.799
0.000
0.000
National security Index
23.423
2.582
9.07
0.000
18.364
28.483
***
Constant
6.103
5.462
1.12
0.264
-4.603
16.809
Model 4 (lag 3 years)
Environmental taxes revenue
0.000
0.000
-0.43
0.669
0.000
0.000
National security Index
21.681
2.662
8.15
0.000
16.464
26.898
***
Constant
6.698
5.356
1.25
0.211
-3.799
17.195
Note: *** indicates statistical significance at level 99% (p<0.01), ** – statistical significance at level 95% (p<0.05), * –
statistical significance at level 90% (p<0.1).
Source: authors’ calculations
These tools should be the primary way to form
environmentally responsible behaviour of economic
entities.
Given the results of calculations, analysed the
experience of EU countries and domestic realities,
we conclude that Ukraine needs to harmonize the
domestic system of environmental taxation with
European practices in order to preserve the
environment and efficient use of environmental tax
revenues in terms of the above areas. It is
noteworthy that most countries that are
characterized by effective environmental tax policy,
use not one but several tax and (often) and non-tax
instruments to stimulate environmentally sound
activities and reduce the harmful effects on the
environment. In this regard, the development of
theoretical and methodological support for assessing
the complex impact of the state on the activities of
environmental taxpayers, which is associated with
changes (positive or negative) in their impact on the
environment.
Therefore, the overall impact of state tax policy
on the activities of environmental taxpayers should
be assessed as follows (1):
TFR
TI
TFR
ETBETR
ET
m
jj
n
і
ii
e
1
1
(1)
where
ETе – the general influence of the tax
ecological policy of the state connected with change
of the tax burden arising as a result of ecologically
influencing activity of subjects of business;
ETRі – environmental tax rate for the i-th type of
environmental pollution;
ETBi – the amount of harmful substances by the
i-th type of environmental pollution, which serves as
a tax base;
n – the number of types of environmental
pollution;
TIj – the amount of tax revenues that have not
been paid in connection with the benefit of the j-th
type of tax other than environmental;
m – the number of types of taxes, other than
environmental, for which benefits are established in
connection with the reduction of harmful effects of
the enterprise on the environment;
TFR – the amount of the financial result of the
enterprise, which is the source of taxes.
At the same time, the amount of tax revenues
that have not been paid in connection with benefits
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Tetiana Vasilyeva, Yaryna Samusevych,
Vitalina Babenko, Svitlana Bestuzheva,
Svitlana Bondarenko, Iryna Nesterenko
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other than environmental, is estimated as follows
(2): TIj = TSTj – TSFj (2)
where TSTj – the amount of taxes accrued at
normal rates and conditions of taxation;
TSFj – the amount of taxes actually paid, accrued
at the usual rates and conditions of taxation.
The developed theoretical and methodological
model creates a basis for further factor analysis of
changes in the tax burden of business entities in
order to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of
state tax policy in the field of nature management
and environmental protection.
4 Conclusion
The study showed that one of the goals of the
introduction of environmental taxes is to regulate
environmentally responsible behaviour of
enterprises and households. At the same time,
bibliometric analysis shows that the behaviour of
economic actors is more due to psychological than
economic factors. Importantly, empirical research
has shown the limited effectiveness of
environmental taxes in regulating various aspects of
environmental responsibility. Thus, an increase in
the tax burden from environmental taxes by one
million US dollars on average leads to a reduction in
the Eco-Innovation Index by 0.001, as well as to a
slight increase in CO2 emissions from
manufacturing industries and construction and from
transport. This points to the fact that now
environmental taxes are mostly a fiscal tool, which
is perceived as additional costs of economic activity
and does not determine the need for
environmentally oriented changes in approaches and
technologies.
Moreover, environmental taxes do not actually
have a deterrent effect in the regulation of
environmentally harmful anthropogenic impacts,
and in some cases provide further incentives for
environmentally harmful activities. This points to
the fact that the regulatory purpose of the
application of environmental taxes indicates the
need to reform the mechanism of their application.
In this regard, the approach to determining the tax
benefits for the payment of environmental taxes,
which should be applied to enterprises that reduce
the environmental impact of the environment, was
justified. The above recommendations are important
for adjusting the environmental tax policy of
countries in the context of improving their
efficiency.
At the same time, the obtained results are
scientifically valuable from the point of view of
confirming the need to find an optimal set of
regulatory tools to ensure environmentally
responsible behaviour of economic agents. Thus, it
is promising to study the interaction of
environmental taxes and state environmental
investment programs, as well as directive methods
of influence on the use of environmentally safe
technologies.
Acknowledgement:
This work was supported by the Ministry of
Education and Science of Ukraine and performed
the results of the project «De-shadowing and
regulatory efficiency of environmental taxation:
optimization modelling to ensure national security
and rational use of nature» (registration number
0122U000777).
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
The authors equally contributed in the present
research, at all stages from the formulation of the
problem to the final findings and solution.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare
that are relevant to the content of this article.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
_US
This work was supported by the Ministry of
Education and Science of Ukraine and performed
the results of the project «De-shadowing and
regulatory efficiency of environmental taxation:
optimization modelling to ensure national security
and rational use of nature» (registration number
0122U000777).