Reintegration Patterns of Return migrants in the Albanian Labor
Market
ARMELA XHAHO
Institute for Democracy and Mediation,
Shenasi Dishnica, Nd. 35, H. 1, 1017 Tirana,
ALBANIA
ELVIRA FETAHU
Department of Marketing,
Faculty of Economy, University of Elbasan,
Rruga “Ismail Zyma”, Elbasan,
ALBANIA
Abstract: - Over the last few years, the global economic crisis triggered an unexpected increase in the number of
migrants returning to Albania. Regardless of the returnees’ typology, the upward trend in return migration
highlights the need for measures that could tackle reintegration challenges upon return to their country of
origin. In practice, reintegration support consists mainly of project-based programs which are limited and not
sustainable over time. The primary goal of this study is to analyze returnees’ patterns and mechanisms of
reintegration in the Albanian labor market. The study provides some evidence-based recommendations for
policy stakeholders to design targeted reintegration programs and policies for returnees aiming to promote the
investment of financial capital, know-how, and know who earned abroad. The findings show that returnees
perceived the business environment in Albania as being unfavorable for the successful development of their
business. The country’s infrastructure gaps, feeble public investment, non-transparent business procedures
regarding investments and soft loans, bureaucracy, and widespread informality seem to hamper foreign
entrepreneurial investment from returnees.
Key-Words: - Return migrants, reintegration, labor market, patterns, strategy
Received: June 13, 2022. Revised: October 11, 2022. Accepted: November 6, 2022. Published: November 28, 2022.
1 Introduction
Return migration is a multifaceted phenomenon,
shaped by different structural and personal factors,
such as push factors- factors motivating migrants to
leave the foreign country; pull factors- usually
referring to the economic and political situation of
the native country; the individual characteristics of
migrants and their agency; their migration
experience, family relationships, and ties, etc. All
these factors shape patterns of voluntary return, [1].
Over the last few years, the global economic crisis
triggered an unexpected increase in the number of
migrants returning to Albania. According to the
National Albanian Household Migration Survey for
the period 2011-2019, the total number of Albanian
returnees by 2019 was estimated at approximately
95,064 citizens. A considerable percentage (85%)
of the immigrants used to live and work in the three
most popular emigrants’ intended foreign countries,
namely Greece, Italy, and Germany, [2]. Although
the main drivers that usually shape outward
migration in the case of forced return were mostly
associated with the hosting countries’ migration
regimes and policies, which might have led to the
forced deportation of irregular migrants.
Regardless of the returnees’ typology, the upward
trend in return migration highlights the need for
measures that need to tackle the reintegration
challenges upon return to their country of origin. In
practice, reintegration support consists mainly of
project-based initiatives which are quite limited and
not sustainable over time. In general, the lack of
information on the services offered to returnees, as
well as insufficient and inadequate institutional,
human capacities at a local level are considered to
be major barriers hampering their patterns of
reintegration. Despite the Albanian government’s
measures in facilitating the reintegration of
returned migrants, mainly through sectoral
strategies, such measures seem to be highly
fragmented, keeping returnees at the margins of the
mainstream programs. So far, these programs and
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1901
Volume 19, 2022
policies have resulted in being insignificant and
non-sustainable. Apart from this, comprehensive
studies and accurate statistical data on returned
migrants and their potential development at a
national level are scarce. The 2021 European
Commission Report on Albania, [3] pointed out
that the institutional framework on the reintegration
of returnees and particularly those in vulnerable
categories should be improved with clear
attributions of responsibilities among national and
local actors.
On the other hand, despite the challenges migrants
face during their reintegration process, they can
also play a very important role in the economic and
social development of a country. Returnees can
bring back to Albania their savings, human capital
(i.e. skills and know-how, new mentality and ideas,
working habits, etc.), as well as their social capital.
So far, the studies assessing the situation of
Albanian returned migrants have only produced a
partial picture of the situation, excluding the
returnees’ challenges and opportunities in the labor
market. To address this gap, we have undertaken a
thorough assessment of the returnees’ situation in
Albania. We relied on primary data, collected
through 25 face-to-face in-depth interviews with
Albanian returned migrants from Greece and Italy,
as well as secondary data and desk review. The
main aim of this study is to provide a robust
understanding of returnees’ reintegration dynamics
in the labor market and the challenges they face
upon return. In addition to this, the study aims to
shed light on the human capital that returnees bring
back contributing positively to the development of
their native country. The study provides some
evidence-based recommendations for policy
stakeholders to design targeted reintegration
programs and policies for returnees aiming to
promote the investment of financial capital, know-
how, and know who earned abroad.
This paper is structured into seven main sections.
The paper starts with the introduction section
followed by the methodology of the study. The
third section provides an overview of patterns of
return migration focusing on the contextualization,
challenges faced by return migrants, benefits for
the home country, and the reintegration theory and
structural barriers migrants face. The fourth section
analyses the institutional and regulatory framework
and gaps in return migration. The fifth section
starts with an overview of profiles of return
migrants and reasons for returning followed by the
next section on the labor market integration
challenges of returnees. The final section concludes
and provides recommendations on how to enhance
the effectiveness of reintegration measures.
2 Methodology
The primary goal of this study is to develop a
robust understanding of returnees’ patterns and
mechanisms of reintegration in the Albanian labor
market. This research adopts a combination of
primary and secondary data. The primary data
consists of 25 in-depth interviews conducted with
Albanian returnees from Greece and Italy. From the
interviews conducted, almost ¾ of the samples
consisted of returnees from Greece and ¼ from
Italy. The fieldwork was carried out in 2021 to
better capture the dynamics of return in the
aftermath of the economic crises and then it was
supported by new data to understand the effect of
the COVID-19 pandemic on returnees. To ensure a
geographic representation, we selected our
respondents from three main regions in Albania:
Voskopoja (north), Tirana (center), and Fier
(south).
The questionnaire consisted of 14 open-ended
questions which lasted from one hour to
approximately 90 minutes and were all tape-
recorded with the prior consent of the respondents.
The interviews broadly employed a life-history
approach, exploring life-course experiences in the
intended foreign countries and then their post-
return experience and reintegration challenges too.
The reason we decided to choose this instrument is
that it enables a better understanding and
exploration of the topic and facilitates
communication with the subject. In this way, not
only does it help in collecting structured
information, but it also encourages the interviewed
subjects to provide their in-depth opinions,
experience, and attitudes. When conducting this
research, we looked at returnees’ inflows consisting
of Albanian citizens returning voluntarily to their
country of origin or habitual residence usually after
having spent at least one year in another country.
Our access to participants largely depended on the
‘snowballing sampling method’ generated through
multiple informal networks and referrals from local
grassroots NGOs, operating in the targeted areas.
The target group consists of 13 women and 12 men,
aged 18 years old and above, who had stayed more
than one year abroad and had at least one working
experience in the host country. Concerning the
returnees’ educational level, the majority of the
respondents had finished high school, nearly
67.5%. Meanwhile, 19% of them did have a
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1902
Volume 19, 2022
university degree. Out of these percentages, 38% of
them migrated between the years 1991-1995, 49%
between 1996-2000, and the rest after 2000. As for
occupational status before returning, women were
mostly employed in the service-providing and
domestic sectors, whereas men were employed in
the construction sector.
Among our target group of Albanian returnees, the
returnees’ inflows were mostly triggered by the
Greek economic crisis. Referring to the latter one,
it explains the fact that almost 81% of them set up
their own business, which implies a high preference
of returnees for self-employment mostly in the
sectors of industry where they have gained the
“know-how” and some experience.
As mentioned above, the data collected from the
research were analyzed using the Maxqda software
program, aiming at generating and analyzing
qualitative data. The participants’ information was
coded to respect the confidentiality of their
personal information and the ethics of the research
conducted. The empirical findings from the
analysis of interviews were supplemented with
secondary data collected from official statistics,
desk review of reports, as well as other official
documents. Official information requests were sent
to the appropriate institutions dealing with
migration, the labor market, and business
investment issues. The desk review included an
extensive contemporary literary review of reports
realized by international and national organizations,
governmental publications, and academic articles
examining the current state of research and policies
on returned migration. In addition to this, it
consisted of an existing analysis of regulatory and
institutional frameworks in Albania. This review
was also used as a preliminary means to identify
the gaps and give a snapshot of the current
situation.
In conclusion, the preliminary findings and
recommendations will be consulted and discussed
in a roundtable with stakeholders, consisting of
senior representatives from CSOs, academics, key
decision, and policy-makers from governmental
authorities working on migration issues. The
consultation aimed at validating the primary data
obtained through fieldwork and fine-tuning the
main findings of this study.
3 Patterns of Return Migration
3.1 Characteristics of Recent Return
Migration in Albania
International migration theoretical frameworks
have shown that return decisions are part of a
highly complex migration story, [4]. Danaj reveals
that the factors that push migrants to come back to
their home country have been divided into two
groups: push factors, consisting of motivational
reasons to leave the country of destination, and pull
factors consisting of economic and political
circumstances of the home country, [1]. In recent
years, the return wave of Albanian migrants from
Greece and Italy was mainly due to the economic
recession and austerity measures in the aftermath of
the crisis, [5]. Data from INSTAT and IOM
provide some interesting information regarding the
profiles and characteristics of return migration in
the past few years, [6]. Those who return prefer to
settle in Tirana and the vast majority of returnees
are young men and part of the working-age
population. Recent data from the National Albanian
Household Migration Survey for the period 2011-
2019 show that the total number of Albanian
returnees by 2019 was estimated at approximately
95,064 citizens. A considerable percentage (85%)
of the immigrants used to live and work in the three
most popular emigrants’ intended foreign countries,
namely Greece, Italy, and Germany, [6].
Studies have shown that assistance and
reintegration support to return migrants remain a
big challenge. According to IOM’s definition:
“Reintegration can be defined as the re-inclusion or
re-incorporation of a person into a group or process
enabling migrants to reincorporate into the society
of their country of origin. It enables them to be
involved in the country’s political and economic
life, and cultural and social activities as well. Some
of the reintegration obstacles faced by returnees are
listed below:
Reintegration into social and economic life, due to
lack of information on the available services.
Bureaucratic procedures can impede the effective
reintegration of migrants;
Return migrants often lack personal identification
documents, making it more difficult for them to be
included as beneficiaries of active labor market
policies. Moreover, the lack of opportunities and
the low level of trust in institutions further
disincentives returnees to register and seek support
from local institutions.
A large portion of migrant workers also faces
specific challenges in terms of recognition of skills
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1903
Volume 19, 2022
and qualifications. It seems that oftentimes the skill
set of the returnees may not always match the labor
market needs.
Reinsertion into the education system is another
impediment to their reintegration as they need to
cope with both administrative obstacles to enroll in
school as well as the unwelcoming attitudes and
prejudices displayed by their peers [7], [8], [6].
3.2 Return Migration: Why Is It Potentially
Important for the Origin/Native Country?
Albania can benefit to a great extent from the skills,
‘know-how’, mentality, ideas, and working habits
returnees bring in the country. Return migrants
have a huge potential for human and social capital.
The transfer of financial capital (remittances and
accumulated savings) that return migrants bring
back to their country can soothe liquidity shortages.
Return migrants are considered to be a scarce
source and they can be strategically deployed to
stimulate the country’s development. Moreover,
Labrianidis and Lyberaki, [9] and Baldwin-
Edwards, [10] argue that immigrants “tend to return
to their country of origin after all and they are more
likely to consider investments in small micro-
enterprises, which give them opportunities to
employ their family members as well and invest all
the accumulated capital. A large number of studies
King and Vullnetari, [11]; Dustmann and
Kirchkamp, [12]; Ilahi, [13]; McCormick and
Wahba, [14]; Mesnard, [15] argue that it does not
matter whether return migrants register themselves
as job seeker or entrepreneurs, the country itself
would profit from all forms of capital they bring
back. It is widely shown that there is an increase in
the start-up investment curve and self-employment,
transfer of skills and knowledge. Despite all of the
above, it depends on the country’s policy premises
to effectively utilize the human, financial and social
capital of returnees.
Different aspects of the reintegration of returnees
have been partially tackled by various studies that
have, for example, analyzed returnees’
reintegration into the education, employment, or
social safety systems of their home country [7],
[16], [17], [1]. However, these studies did not
provide a holistic account of how returnees
reintegrate into the labor market of their home
country. This study contributes to the existing
scholarship in a variety of ways. This paper differs
from the related scientific literature since it sheds
light on how the returnees were able to transfer to
their home country context their newly acquired
human capital, entrepreneurial knowledge, as well
as their financial capital and their professional
contacts and social networks abroad. In practical
terms, the findings could offer important insights
for policy stakeholders that they can use to design
efficient post-reintegration programs for returnees
and to create an environment that enables and
promotes investments of the financial, social, and
human capital of returnees over the long run.
Whether or not return migration becomes an
empowering story for those who come back,
heavily depends on the policy-makers potential to
deliberately and coherently address the needs of
returnees from a holistic, multidisciplinary, and
coordinated approach.
4 Analysis of Institutional and
Regulatory Framework on Return
Migration
This part of the study provides an assessment of the
current legal, institutional and policy framework
regarding return migration and reintegration.
4.1 Strategic and Regulatory Framework
Currently, the Albanian government does not have
a national strategy concerning the reintegration of
returned Albanian citizens. The former Strategy on
the Reintegration Process of Returnees (2010-
2015) expired in 2015, and since then, no new
policy document has been drawn up. Different
aspects of the returnees’ integration have been
partially tackled through sectional strategic policy
documents, which have considered and treated the
reintegration of returnees in different areas such as
education, employment, and social safety,
recognizing them as a particularly vulnerable
group. However, these policy documents do not
provide a comprehensive and holistic approach
toward a sustainable reintegration process for the
returnees.
The two most important policy documents on
migration are The National Strategy on Migration
and its Action Plan 2019-2022. The development of
the migration governance policy and its action plan
does represent a key milestone in achieving SDG
Target 10.7 to facilitate legal, safe, responsible
migration and mobility of people, including the
implementation of well-planned and well-managed
migration policies. The Strategy and Action Plan
provide a wide range of actions across four main
domains. Although the strategy touches upon the
reintegration issue, no significant progress has been
achieved so far, [7].
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1904
Volume 19, 2022
Regarding the labor market reintegration, the
National Strategy for Development and Integration
as well as the National Strategy for Employment
and Skills Development along with its Action Plan
foresee several measures in addressing the
challenges of the returnees as well as in accessing
decent jobs provided by the formal labor market.
The National Strategy for Development and
Integration (NSDI) 2015-2020 represents the core
strategic document that meets the European
Union’s (EU) integration agenda with the country’s
sustainable economic and social development. One
of the key objectives of this strategy is to enhance
the sustainability of return migration through the
support of these returning migrants’ reintegration.
The strategy sets up measures to increase the
capacities of Migration Counters; to provide
information and support to various categories of
migrants; to enhance actions for the recognition of
skills and qualifications (both formally and
informally) obtained abroad by Albanian citizens
and their integration into the foreign labor market;
enhancing active labor market measures, including
VET training, for returned migrants to facilitate
their re-integration; promote self-employment and
entrepreneurship activities among return migrants
in rural areas and the formalization of their
activities.
In addition, the National Strategy of Employment
and Skills, 2019-2022, indirectly foresees several
measures in terms of the labor market reintegration
of the returned migrants. Some of these measures
are: establishing a monitoring mechanism that will
trace the situation, especially that of people
affected by migration, diversifying VET offers
according to migration trends, and improving the
labor administration too, which is responsible for
the state employment and migration policies.
The Development Strategy of Pre-University
Education indirectly addresses the issue of the
returnees’ re-integration, providing free
coursebooks and psycho-social assistance for the
returnee pupils.
1
In some cases, Regional
Educational Directories are charged with specific
responsibilities and tasks to assist in the
reintegration of these returned children.
2
The National Youth Action Plan 2015-2020
foresees the recognition of vocational training
certifications, including work experience acquired
1
Instruction No. 44, date 21.08.2013 on determining the criteria and
procedures for the recognition of pre-university certificates and
diplomas of Albanian students returning to the country
2
See https://migrationnetwork.un.org/sites/default/files/docs/1-
_final_-_consolidatedreport_gcm_vr_albania_27_tetor_2020.pdf
abroad too. The action plan aims to support
returned youth through the establishment of
financial support mechanisms (such as the youth
support fund scheme) and the creation of facilities
for information exchange and communication
sources.
The Law “The Emigration of Albanian citizens for
employment purposes” No. 9668, 18 December
2006 stipulates several measures for the
reintegration of returnees and protects the
economic, political, and social rights of emigrants.
According to Article 13 of the law, “The state shall
encourage the voluntary return of migrants to their
homeland and their reintegration following the
economic and social life of the country, through the
creation of legal, financial and fiscal facilities and
implementation of business, employment and
vocational training development programs.”
The National Strategy of Diaspora (2018–2024)
sets up several measures to promote the return of
skilled migrants and empower sustainable business
development for those who return.
Law No. 65/2016 “On Social Enterprises in the
Republic of Albania”
The purpose of this law is to regulate the activity of
social enterprises, intending to protect and
social inclusion of vulnerable groups through the
provision of employment opportunities. They
contribute to social protection and the support of
the disadvantaged including migrant workers who
relocate or are displaced within the country
3
.
4.2 Institutional Framework
The Ministry of Health and Social Protection is the
primary state institution charged with the
responsibility of offering social protection and
access to health services for returnees. The
Ministry supervises the activity of the State Social
Service which provides crucial services to
vulnerable categories, including returnees too.
The Ministry of Interior, through the Department of
Anti-Trafficking and Migration, constitutes the
main governmental institution in charge of the
migration policy. The Migration sector of the
department is responsible for the drafting of
strategies and policies related to migration, the
exchange of information, and the provision of
technical assistance to regional and local
structures.
4
3
DCM No. 56, date 31.1.2018 On the definition of Concrete
Categories of Disadvantaged Groups
4
Internal Regulation, Ministry of Interior.
https://mb.gov.al/wp-
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1905
Volume 19, 2022
Monitoring reports on the implementation of the
National Strategy of Migration, 2019-2022, and
Plan of Action is prepared by the Technical
Committee on Migration, established in July
2020as a horizontal body at the Ministry of
Interior’s Emigration Section.
5
Department of Border and Emigration, Albanian
State Police is responsible for collecting
desegregated data on returned migrants (forced or
voluntary). However, it is to be admitted that the
information on the district of residence is seldom
registered as well. Returnee’s access to information
regarding the available institutional support for this
category of people is rarely provided by the
authorities, [7]
The Ministry of Finances and Economy is
responsible for labor migration in the country in
cooperation with other ministries. It develops
policies about employment and vocational training
which facilitate the labor market reintegration of
Albanian returned citizens. It develops and
monitors employment, the labor market and
education and professional training, emigration and
labor migration, health and security in the
workplace as well as pensions. Through its
Department for Employment Policy and
Professional Training, the Employment and
Migration Policy Sector, this ministry is
responsible for maximizing the impact of policies
on employment to all citizens, including migrants.
The National Agency of Employment and Skills
Development offers employment and migration
services through the establishment of migration
counters to facilitate the migrants’ reintegration
into the labor market
6
. Returned migrants can
obtain information on employment opportunities
and employment services from the regional and
local employment offices.
The former Strategy for the Reintegration of
Albanian Returned Citizens (2010-2015) foresaw
the establishment of 36 migration counters
(information desks) located in the regional
employment offices across the country. They were
supposed to serve as information access centers for
immigrants, emigrants, and potential emigrant
groups, offering them guidance, consultation, and
information upon return. Furthermore, they would
serve as mechanisms for registering returning
content/uploads/2019/06/Rregullore_Ministria-e-
Brendshme.pdf
5
PM Decree no.99/2020.
6
http://www.shkp.gov.al/sherbimet/sherbime-punesimi-prove/
migrants
7
. However, the establishment of these
centers did not prove to be successful, because they
provided a limited number of services, and only a
few migrants registered voluntarily. Return
migrants faced challenges in accessing personal
identification cards, certifying their school
diplomas, and receiving legal assistance, [7]. Only
a few return migrants are aware of the information
provided by the governmental programs on
migrants’ reintegration, [18]. In addition, the
establishment of a returnees’ database and the
strengthening of the capacities of migration
counters continue to be far behind, [19].
The Government established the State Ministry of
Diaspora which was responsible for designing and
monitoring the implementation of the diaspora
policy in coordination with other ministries. The
Ministry was closed in 2021 after the
announcement of the new governmental structure
consisting of only 11 ministers. In addition, there
were established several agencies responsible for
addressing Diaspora issues, such as The National
Agency of Diaspora, the Diaspora Development
Fund, the Diaspora Commerce Chamber, the
Research and Publications’ Center of the Arbëresh,
and the Publishing Center of Diaspora. The
Parliamentary Sub-commission of Diaspora and
Migration, State Committee of Diaspora, Diaspora
Coordinative Council, and the Nation’s
Ambassadors Network have also been created over
the past years.
The Albanian Investment Development Agency
(AIDA) is an institution that is part of the Ministry
of Finance and Economy. The focus of the Agency
is on enhancing the competitiveness of the private
sector, strengthening the export potential of the
country, and promoting/supporting foreign direct
investment in Albania, as well as promoting the
country's tourism potential. AIDA provides access
to up-to-date information, provides an efficient way
of communicating with government bodies, and
serves as a "One-Stop-Shop", supporting investors
throughout the investment process. Although the
Agency undertakes all necessary initiatives for the
development of the private sector and the
improvement of the business climate, it does not
discriminate between investments from returning
migrants, diaspora, or foreign investment.
7
Amendment to the Order No. 2086, dated 13.11.2007 “On
the Form and Content of Migrant’s Register
and the Registration Procedure in conformity with Article
104(4) of the Constitution of Albania and
Article 12 of the Law No. 9668/2006 on the establishment of a
database on Returnees Registered at
Migration Counters
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1906
Volume 19, 2022
Currently, there are few committed
initiatives/programs led by DIMAK- GIZ,
8
and
IOM
9
on returnees and the Albanian diaspora.
5 Profiles of Return migrants and
Reasons for Returning
Although the economic crisis is generally seen as
the main push factor that triggered this wave of
return migration, recent studies, [20], [21], have
suggested that there were other reasons why
migrants returned to Albania, including family
reasons and obligations, nostalgia for their home
country, psychological reasons, health-related
issues, or a desire to pursue better jobs or
investment opportunities in Albania. Most of the
migrants who returned voluntarily had achieved
their migration goals and were seeking to advance
their careers or to invest their accumulated capital
by establishing a business in Albania.
However, the existing literature on return migration
does not provide a clear picture of the precise
numbers of returnees, the trends of (permanent or
temporary) return migration, or the trajectories and
reintegration struggles, [21]. In addition, previous
studies have provided little evidence on the
reintegration patterns/paths of individuals who
decided to return to and settle in Albania. Most of
these studies provided a snapshot of the current
reintegration policies and institutional frameworks,
[22]. However, this scholarly research on return
migrants has indicated that there is a general trend
of self-employment among returnees, [23], [24]. It
has, for example, been reported that the majority of
these migrants communicated regularly with family
members they left behind, with many visiting
Albania several times a year, either for seasonal
holidays or whenever they had an opportunity,
[18].
Findings from the interviews have pointed out three
main reasons behind the decision of migrants to
return to their home country, Albania. It is crucial
to pinpoint the fact that the return to Albania was
mainly affected by the above-mentioned "push"
factors in host countries, rather than "pull" factors
in the origin country.
8
The programme facilitates the reintegration process of
returnees. For more information see:
https://www.startfinder.de/en/advisory-centre/german-information-
centre-migration-vocational-training-and-career-dimak-tirana.
9
The programme engages the Albanian diaspora to the social
and economic development of Albania. For more information
see: https://www.adbc.al/en/iom-albania-diaspora-programme/
5.1 Reasons for Returning
5.1.1 Economic Crisis
Experiences of return migrants indicate that the
decision to return was somehow constrained by the
economic crises that swept Greece and Italy. Due
to the economic downturn, many migrant workers
lost their jobs and were unable to survive
financially in the target countries. The Albanian
immigrant men were the first to be hit by the Greek
austerity measures since they were mostly
employed in the construction sector, which was
heavily affected by the crisis. Returnees’ efforts
to find employment and reintegrate into the labor
market may be hindered for several reasons, such
as a lack of employment and economic
opportunities in their origin county; concerns that
the wages offered in their home country do not
match their abilities or the compensation levels of
their host country; and differences between the
labor markets of their host country and their home
country, [25].
In addition to concerns related to employment, the
extremely high taxes and the decreasing demand
for jobs due to Greek austerity measures and
economic downturn worsened their families’
incomes. In turn, they either started to work in
extremely precarious occupations or were left
without jobs at all. So, in the aftermath of the crisis,
it seems that they were left with no choice other
than to return.
In the meantime, they proved that Albania had
changed considerably from when they first left.
Yet, although in their view changes had occurred,
these developments were only minimal, and in
reality, they faced another type of depression in
their home country, accompanied by a sense of
alienation, as well.
Those who were constrained to return because of
the crisis, unemployment, or lack of opportunities
in the host countries seem to be less likely and
unprepared regarding their investment paths in
Albania. Although this group of returnees does not
consist of those who were somehow forced to
return because of the host countries’ authorities and
their irregular status, they seem to be far away from
achieving their migration goals and closing
successfully their migratory cycle. Subsequently,
due to insufficient financial capital, this target
group was also amongst those who were still
thinking of re-migrate again to other EU countries.
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1907
Volume 19, 2022
5.1.2 Nostalgia
Another important reason for the prompt return was
the homesickness that had overwhelmed some of
these migrants. This was combined with nostalgia,
memories of their childhood, and feelings of
belonging. Some of these migrants already owned
property in Albania, which was inherited by their
parents. They yearned for a stable and comfortable
life in their own country, and having a property
back home pushed them to make the return
decision faster.
5.1.3 Family Reasons
Other reasons for returning were family obligations
and mostly the "duty to care" for the older
generation. Most of the returnees had considered
the deteriorating health conditions of their parents,
who needed constant care from their children when
deciding to return to Albania. Some return migrants
had left their children in the care of their parents, so
they could work longer hours in the hopes of
building a stable future for their children. Yet, the
long working hours and the distance from their
children pushed them to come back. Although the
economic crisis was not among the major reasons
for returning, they could not take their children to
Greece either due to their irregular status or other
personal reasons.
The stories and reflections shared by many
migrants reveal the worries they had for their
parents as well. There was a strong attachment to
family and kinship members, parents, and the
homeland in general. Although one interviewee had
taken their parents to Greece, they did not feel
comfortable living in a foreign country despite the
high number of Albanian migrants living there. The
older generation could not resist staying in Greece.
They expressed concern about their properties back
in Albania, in which they had invested their
earnings. It is to be noted that some migrants
expressed their anguished feelings and duty to take
care of their parents:
Therefore, as it can be understood, the return path
was to some extent shaped by their desires and
obligations vs their families.
5.1.4 Free will- Achieving the migration Goals
Finally, another group of migrants that we
interviewed was the ones who had accumulated
enough earnings and thought of investing in
Albania. This group seems to have lots of potential
in terms of financial, social, and human capital
since their return was entirely voluntary and not
necessarily constrained by the economic crisis or
other family-related factors. These migrants
constitute those whose migration trajectory could
be seen as a success story, or as a report, the ones
who have achieved their initial migration goals,
[26].
One interviewee, for example, pinpointed the fact
that there were certain needs in their home country,
Albania that could be achieved with less capital
than if they had opened the same venture in Greece.
Moreover, this interviewee expressed their
awareness of having to work in physically
demanding jobs (i.e., construction) in Greece,
which was beginning to take a toll on their health.
Returning to Albania was a low-risk decision for
them as they could get a job back or start a new
business through connections if they decided to
return to Greece again.
5.2 Investment Avenues after Return
The maintenance of interpersonal and family bonds
with the home country facilitated the decision to
return and created the premises for the investment
of capital. It is interesting to note that our empirical
evidence suggests that return migration was not a
necessary permanent decision, but a dynamic cycle
involving multiple back-and-forth migration
episodes before settling. The propensity to set up
and manage a business seems to be a viable option
for those willing to transfer the capital gained
abroad. Our narratives show that some migrants
had already developed an investment and business
management plan in advance.
Our narratives show that business ventures were
primarily focused on tourism and agriculture; this
was due to the lack of experience in other business
opportunities. These businesses came to life slowly,
as return migrants started to save and invest in their
homes year by year.
5.2.1 Social Networks Hinting Where to Invest
We observed that social networks served as safety
nets for ensuring the labor market reintegration of
returnees when other resources were not available.
They were helpful in a variety of ways, either
assisting migrants with information or facilitating
their entrance into the labor market. The
acquaintances of these return migrants had opened
similar businesses in the sectors of catering and
tourism, and their experience helped facilitate and
bring to life their businesses, directing them on the
risks associated with certain business ventures, and
providing them with information on legal and
business procedures in Albania.
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1908
Volume 19, 2022
6 Labour Market Integration
Challenges
Previous work experiences in construction or
catering have enhanced the human capital of
migrants. They got new ideas and knowledge on
how to set up and manage a business. Besides
technical skills in cooking or construction and
modern use of technology, they have also benefited
from hospitality skills or even from the social
capital gained abroad.
6.1 Reintegration Support and Assistance by
the State
Re-integration support constitutes an essential
component of the post-return experience of
returnees, particularly in the labor market.
Concerning institutional support, returnees state
that they are unaware of any supporting programs
at all. As Meri 41 states, “I'm not even aware that
there are institutions which offer assistance. I have
no information about this, nor have I read about it
anywhere”. Returnees find it hard to adapt to the
labor market although their experience has
equipped them with ‘know-how’, skills, and
competencies which give them a competitive
advantage in this market. Besides this, they claim
that the experience gained abroad was sometimes
not useful or not as much appreciated as they
expected it would be. Nela, a 50-year-old woman
claims: “It was hard for me to adapt to the labor
market, even though I was open to working
anywhere, in the beginning, I felt that my
experience was not appreciated. Communication
and contact with government institutions were quite
challenging. Even for insignificant things like
obtaining a simple certificate, they barely replied”.
The central government on the other side has
announced several supporting schemes for the labor
market integration of returned migrants, but most
returned migrants declare that they have not
received any support or concrete assistance. “We've
heard of the government aid and reintegration
programs, but only theoretically. In practice, we
haven't benefitted from any of these” claims Ilda, a
34-year- old woman. They declare that they do not
find a way to approach these programs and some
others aren’t even sure if they exist. The same was
mentioned by other migrants.
As identified previously in this study, most of the
returnees opened their own business upon return.
These entrepreneurship initiatives came out
because they wanted to valorize their abilities,
skills, and ‘know-how’ gathered in the host
country. None of them received any support from
the government for their start-ups
It is interesting to note the fact that few participants
claim that civil society organizations have been the
only support for their reintegration into Albanian
society. This support was mainly focused on
business management assistance and different
aspects of business promotion and communication.
The support during the pandemic situation was
another area of interest for this study. Overall, there
was not any dedicated support targeted for their
businesses. For the ones who were registered, the
government provided financial incentive packages
that were the same as for all other businesses in
Albania.
The returnees reported that they have not received
any support from the state for establishing their
businesses, not even basic support related to
services such as getting electricity and water. Not
only that, but others faced difficulties in the
recognition of documents and papers related to
their businesses.
6.2 Challenges in Setting Up and Managing
a Business
Our narratives showed that being a successful
entrepreneur in Albania depends much more on
how enabling or friendly is the business
environment. Businesses operate in an environment
that includes both macro and micro factors. So, it is
important to manage the factors that come from the
macro environment and which are related to the
economic situation, political and legal
environment, social environment, etc. If the
environment provides proper and favorable
conditions, of course, the business will have more
chances to be successful. In our study, this
environment is not as encouraging to develop
successful businesses. Their narratives show that
bureaucratic procedures were one of the main
challenges they faced:
Bureaucratic procedures in the recognition of
previous learning certificates were revealed by
other respondents.
Return migrants also criticize the work of the
institutions that are supposed to financially help
them in building a business. They state that they
did not receive any soft loans assigned for
businesses, which was a priority sector of the home
country, and normally as such should be supported
with grants to push investors to engage in this
sector. Nevertheless, they declared they have been
faced with lots of pressure and bribing from
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1909
Volume 19, 2022
officials who were in charge of soft loan
distribution schemes.
As it is evident from our narratives, complaints
were mostly related to the tax system, such as high
taxes, fiscal and administrative burdens, volatile tax
rules, frequent changes to tax regulations and
difficult taxation procedures and access to loans,
and unfair competition.
6.3 Unfriendly Business Environment
Strict rules and punishment-oriented behavior from
authorities are also other problems for the proper
function of the returnee's business and remain an
obstacle to doing business.
Returnees do not feel safe about their investments
and properties. The issue is related to the fact that
in some regions in Albania they still have problems
with property owners and property certificates
10
.
Not being equipped with the property certificates
means difficulties related to potential investments
in the future which might be essential to improve
its functionality and use it properly. So, the
returnees state that conditioned by this situation
they were obliged to break the rules and invest in
their properties without permits.
Uncertainties over land and property rights were
present in the narratives of many migrants along
with the gaps in public infrastructure (unreliability
of the energy supply; poor water infrastructure). In
addition to that, some of them were also concerned
about shortages of skills in the labor market, since
they could not find skilled workers. The
bottlenecks of the business environment seem to
hamper foreign investment from returnees which
are essential in enhancing the competitiveness of
the economy.
They were indeed disappointed by the fact that not
only did they not have any incentives, but on the
contrary, authorities scrutinized them to a larger
extent compared to other businesses. Although few
returnees from Italy had already set up
transnational economic partnerships, bringing back
modern technology and work ethic, they felt
abandoned and acknowledged the lack of support
as a major drawback.
The majority of participants in this study revealed
that they had been faced with administrative and
institutional constraints due to bureaucratic
10
Access to land is particularly difficult issue in Albania, as land
ownership is highly fragmented. Albania is ranked 111 out of 180
countries in the in-property rights protection. The lack of a properly
rights and land market, discourages Investors. European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, ‘Albania Diagnostic’., EBRD,
London, 2019.
procedures, corruption, high taxation and
informality, and unfair competition. Moreover, the
instability of political and economic systems has
further hampered their business efforts, which in
turn produced feelings of disappointment and regret
for investing in Albania.
7 Conclusions
In recent years, Albania has faced a comparatively
large influx of return migration, which sloped
significantly upwards in the aftermath of the global
economic crisis. Due to the deep recession crisis,
the economic situation of Albanian migrant
families in the two major destination countries
Greece and Italy has suddenly worsened, with
unprecedented rising levels of unemployment,
resulting in financial hardships. Among those who
returned voluntarily, the economic downturn was
the predominant reason behind the outward
migration.
Regardless of the pull and the push factors that
shaped return decisions, almost all the returnees
experienced several reintegration challenges,
particularly concerning labor market reintegration.
Our study found that none of the returnees had the
chance to receive information from Migration
Counters, and the reason behind this was that they
were not aware of the existence of such
mechanisms. They found it difficult to receive
information, orientation, and guidance about
possible sectors they could invest their savings.
Narratives from our respondents revealed that they
had little information about local regulations and
legislation for starting a business or public services
deemed for returnees. Such information was mainly
provided by their family members and friends.
Though the business environment is of utmost
importance for private investors, the findings show
that returnees perceived the business environment
in Albania as being unfavorable, which in turn had
adverse implications for their business. Policies for
attracting (foreign) investments do not discriminate
between migrant entrepreneurs and (foreign)
investors. Although in terms of business
management this is related to business
competitiveness in the market, returnees felt
disappointed with such policies.
The majority of interviewees stated that
bureaucracy, widespread informality, and
corruption have been major impediments to their
reintegration into the labor market. They struggled
to get the papers done and said that the state
exercised a tough policy against them by
demanding several documents. In addition, the
country’s infrastructure gaps, feeble public
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1910
Volume 19, 2022
investment, and non-transparent business
procedures regarding investments and soft loans
were perceived as serious impediments to their
successful reintegration into the labor market. The
prevailing services and information available to
returnees lag far behind the desired standard. Such
services were either fragmented or ad hoc, mostly
project-based ones.
In addition, none of them had received financial aid
or incentive packages upon their return. They
voiced their concern about favoritism for providing
such incentives. In the aftermath of the COVID-19
outbreak, they expressed concerns that their
enterprises will be closed down. Interviews
reflected negative rhetoric and regret about
investing in Albania. Feelings of disappointment
and helplessness were present in all those who had
invested in Albania.
Although for some interviewees, the return trend
was permanent, for many others, the return was
temporary. This might also be related to the
circular patterns of Albanian migration, which
consists of many back-and-forth movements
between the origin and the host countries. Yet, the
lack of reintegration policies might as well serve as
the main push factor for the remigration of
returnees soon
1
. Return migration, according to our
narratives, was viewed as a disruption to migratory
plans and ambitions in the face of economic
adversity rather than the endpoint of their
migratory trajectory. This group of migrants felt
quite insecure about their future in Albania.
It is noteworthy to emphasize that such pre-mature
return of migrants in the wake of the financial crisis
was not accompanied by the accumulation of
necessary social and financial capital before
relocation to the origin country. On the other hand,
those who were prepared for their return well in
advance and had an orientation and investment plan
seem to be more economically stable upon return.
They maintained strong family and kinship ties,
either by visiting Albania several times or by using
social media communication tools, which in turn
proved to be essential when resettling back home.
Our study found that returnees whose migratory
goals were fulfilled were more likely to be
considered potential investors and agents of
economic development. They were able to
capitalize on the skills they gained abroad and, as
such, they had better employment prospects in
Albania.
Our findings suggest that re-integration
infrastructure and structural factors have shaped
patterns of post-return in the labor market. Such
factors constitute among the necessary conditions
for promoting the investment of capital, know-how,
and "know-who" earned abroad. It is noteworthy in
that it emphasizes that pre-return preparation looms
large in post-return experiences, a finding that is
consistent with other research scholarships in the
field, [27].
In conclusion, the current study contributes to our
understanding of factors and actors that shape and
hinder reintegration patterns in the labor market.
Although there is no silver bullet or one-size-fits-
all solution for addressing the labor market
reintegration challenges of return migrants, a
holistic approach is necessary to address their
complex needs. Failure to address the immediate
reintegration needs of returnees through creating an
enabling policy and institutional framework might
further exacerbate and undermine their
development potential. Therefore, to take
advantage of returnees’ potential and harness their
"know-how" for economic and social development
in their home country, the entire cycle of
reintegration should be enhanced and made more
efficient through the following policy
recommendations:
8 Recommendations
Increase information and awareness
Given the considerable changes in their country of
origin, it is of primary importance to inform return
migrants on the legislative framework,
employment, and private business opportunities in
Albania. To achieve this goal, the following
measures should be undertaken:
Enhancing technical and human capacities of
information centers (migration counters-MC) to
provide support and counseling; Scaling up and
operationalizing MC at all local self-government
units to ensure a better outreach to the target group;
MC should facilitate the provision of information
on the domestic legislation; information on medical
services, social programs, pension security, and
documents related to citizenship; as well as
practical information for investment and labor
market opportunities in easy absorbable language;
Developing an information portal that provides
comprehensive information to return migrants;
Raising awareness on the available services to
return migrants through informative brochures/
advertisements in airports, municipalities, health
centers, schools, and other institutions (such as
ADISA) to make sure that they are well-informed
on the services available to them;
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1911
Volume 19, 2022
Systematic information provision and distribution
of return migration data by respective authorities;
disaggregated data and factsheets uploaded in the
online platform/ websites;
Effective communication and advocacy tools to
inform, influence, or raise awareness of public
officials, media, and other key actors involved in
issues concerning returnees.
Addressing the employment issue is an essential
step in the reintegration of returnees in their
country of origin to ensure their financial
independence.
Promote targeted employment promotion programs
that maximize returnees’ human capital and
provide an impetus for profiling them to specific
sectors of the economy;
Requalification training and workshops should be
conducted to increase and diversify the skills of the
returnees according to the most demanded jobs in
the domestic labor market;
Improving and/or establishing procedures for
validation of knowledge and facilitating the process
for the recognition of education/VET certificates
obtained abroad;
Job placement support and skill matching programs
to increase employment prospects of returnees;
Liaise with private operators for the provision of
job placement programs/ apprenticeships;
Benefits, in the form of financial or technical
incentives, should be made available to companies
that employ returnees.
Develop tailored programs that support
entrepreneurship and start-ups in sectors where
migrants could apply the skills and experiences
acquired abroad;
Establishing a more enabling business environment
through specific incentive schemes for businesses
established by returned migrants; institutions and
donors should provide financial support to
promising business projects and start-ups;
maintaining favorable fiscal policies, custom
facilities, technical assistance, financial incentives
such as tax reduction and better loan conditions for
those who generate employment;
Long-term mentoring and coaching assistance for
those willing to pursue a self-employment sector;
Raise capacities of business-related institutions &
CSOs to support returnees in developing business
plans and applying for start-ups programs; assisting
them in preparing business plans, financial and
business management and tax payments, etc.;
Organize awareness-raising workshops regarding
the legislation surrounding the area of micro-
entrepreneurship.
Enhance policy & institutional framework on return
migration and reintegration
Reintegration measures should be fully
mainstreamed into other intersectional strategic
documents and local action plans for sustainable
inclusion;
Institutions that directly work with migrants should
periodically undertake assessments on the policy
implementation and the institutional gaps that may
exist;
Implement a regulatory impact assessment
instrument to review, monitor, and evaluate the
implementation and effectiveness of current
legislation and measures on return migration and
reintegration;
Return migrants should be included as a
beneficiary group in local action plans and other
strategic and policy documents of LSGUs; prepare
briefs on lessons learned “Good practices of service
delivery for returnees;
Draft guidelines and protocols for service providers
on how to deliver services to returnees; providing
public healthcare services, and psychological
consultation in due time;
Conduct a comprehensive assessment of capacity
needs and gaps in municipalities affected by return
migration & assess the socio-economic potentials
of returnees;
Establish and operationalize a clear and timely-
efficient procedure/ mechanism for horizontal
cooperation among key institutions involved in the
integration of returnees, such as collaboration
memorandums and other forms of inter-
institutional partnerships.
References:
[1]
S.Danaj, " ‘Return Migration and
Reintegration challenges’, " Hope for the
Future Association, 2006.
[2]
C. INSTAT, " ‘National household migration
survey in Albania’, " IOM: Tirana, 2020.
[3]
"Albania Report 2021.," European
Commission, Directorate-General for
Neighbourhood and Enlargement
Negotiations., 19 October 2021.
[4]
Th.G.Pereiro, " 'Clustering reasons for
returning: an overview of return migration in
Albania', " Journal of International Migration
and Integration, Vols. 20(2), p. pp. 361–374,
2019,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1912
Volume 19, 2022
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
K.Kerpaci and M.Kuka, " ‘Identity in the
Narratives of Albanian Return Migrants from
Greece’, " Journal of Educational and Social
Research, 2 (6), 2019.
[19]
" ‘Albanian Returned Migrants: A Child
Focused Overview of Data Management, "
Observatori and UNICEF, Tirana, 2016.
[20]
T. C. G. D. B. a. Z. A. Kilic, "Investing Back
Home: Return Migration and Business," 2009.
[21]
K. Barjaba, " “Contemporary patterns in
Albanian emigration”, " South-EastEurope
Review, 3(2): 57-64, 2000.
[22]
T. &. G. E. Maroukis, "Circular Migration
between Albania and Greece.,"
MetoikosProject European University
Institute: Florence., 2010.
[23]
B. Nicholson, "From migrant to micro-
entrepreneur: do-it-yourself development in
Albania, " South-East Europe Review, 4(3):
39-42. , 2001.
[24]
G. C. G. D. B. a. Z. A. T Kilic, "Investing
Back Home: Return Migration and Business,"
2009.
[25]
A. Ndreka, "Return Migrants’ Impact in
Economic Development of the Origin
Country," European Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies, p. 10, May-August
2019.
[26]
I.Gëdeshi and R.King, "‘Research Study into
Brain Gain: Reversing Brain Drain with the
AlbanianScientific Diaspora’, UNDP, Tirana,
2018.
[27]
I. L. J. A.T. Mähönen, " ‘Acculturation
expectations and experiences as predictors of
ethnic migrants’ psychological well-being,"
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(5),
2012, pp. 786-806.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en_US
[5]
I.Gëdeshi and R.King, "‘New Trends in
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on BUSINESS and ECONOMICS
DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.171
Armela Xhaho, Elvira Fetahu
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
1913
Volume 19, 2022