The Challenge of drought in Costa Rica: A Preliminary Research with

Economic Implications

ROXANA DURÁN SOSA

Universidad Nacional-CR. Heredia.

COSTA RICA

RUI ALEXANDRE CASTANHO

Faculty of Applied Sciences, WSB University

41-300 Dabrowa Górnicza

POLAND

and

College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg

PO Box 524, Auckland Park

SOUTH AFRICA

GUALTER COUTO

School of Business and Economics and CEEAplA

University of Azores

9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal

PORTUGAL

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5560-5101

Abstract: In recent decades, Costa Rica has been characterized by the expansion of the forested frontier. More

than half of the national territory has forest cover. Despite this, severe drought phenomena in the country

compromise the stability of productive units and ecosystems. This article aims to contribute to the approach to

drought control. The forest, precipitation, and land use relationship are presented as an alternative modeled by

indigenous peoples. For this, an exhaustive review of bibliographic material, databases, and others was carried

out. An interactive approach is made between the resources and natural phenomena and the forest linked to the

philosophy of the native peoples. All this is part of the reflective analysis method. Contextually, the

conclusions are: (i) Despite the expansion of the forest cover, the country has levels of precipitation that tend to

decrease; amd (ii) Economic implications in agribusiness caused by droughts.

Key-Words: Forest, Indigenous Populations, Precipitation and Drought, Sustainability.

Received: June 27, 2021. Revised: February 15, 2022. Accepted: March 24, 2022. Published: April 8, 2022.

1 Introduction

Costa Rica has a population of 5,111,238

inhabitants, of which 4,426,648 (over 12 years)

reside in the Central region 2,778,083, being the

one with the highest concentration of population, in

the Central Pacific there are 253,490, in Brunca

312,794, in Huetar Caribe 381,675, in Huetar Norte

345,671, in other countries 17,682. The residence

735 is unknown (see figure 1) [1]. This distribution

reveals the concentration of the population in the

urban area, which creates greater pressure on

environmental services, such as water and land use.

This growth has demanded the construction of

access roads, conglomerates of residences, and

infrastructure such as sanitation. The increase in

population and the demand for public and private

infrastructure have impacted forested areas

throughout the national territory. The human

development index is 0.794 as of 2018 and is

ranked 68 worldwide [2].

Once more, we should highlight that this

distribution reveals the concentration of the

population in the urban area, which creates more

significant pressure on environmental services,

such as water and the use of the territory.

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Fig. 1: Costa Rica: Residence of the population over 12 years of age by region, 2021 (%).

Source: INEC [1].

On the other hand, five self-defining groups have

been registered by ethnicity: Afro-descendant or

Black (a) with a total population of 45,228, native

peoples (indigenous) with 104,143 people, 289,209

mulattoes, 9,710 Chinese (a), and 3,597,847 White

( a) or mestizo (a). However, a no less critical

number of people belong to another, none of the

undeclared group, whose figure reaches 256,115

[3].

It is essential to highlight that the coexistence of

ethnic groups shares the peaceful vision of the

republic with the abolition of the Army in 1948

(The Founding Board of the Second Republic,

1949) [4]. For this reason, it can be affirmed that

the natural resource, since that time, has not been a

battlefield. Since that year, there has been no large-

scale destruction of nature for war reasons in the

country, and this event has allowed savings since it

is not invested in the Army but education and the

environment [5].

Thus, it is worth noting that ethnic groups have

their own cultural principles when interacting with

the environment. For this reason, it is necessary to

understand that the relationship with the forest

determines its protection, development, or

extinction. Also, it is urgent to mention that the

destruction of the forests does not come from a

single ethnic group, but rather that the ethnic

groups could contribute in very different ways to

protecting the environment. Other factors that

intervene in the protection and conservation of

forest areas include the conceptualization of forest

and environmental jurisprudence.

Therefore, it is worth mentioning that Costa Rica

has 52% of the territory with forest cover [6]. This

coverage is understood as: “Forest is an area of

land with a minimum size of 1.0 hectare, with a

canopy (crown) coverage of more than 30%, with

trees with a potential to reach a minimum height of

5 meters to its maturity in situ” [7]. Also, forests

are considered closed formations of trees of various

strata, understory, and stands that meet the height

of 5 meters and canopy coverage of 30%. The

paramos, natural grasslands, and African palm

plantations are not included as forests [7]. The

national territory has 33 Protective Zones, 51

Wildlife Refuges, 29 National Parks, 12 Wetlands,

17 Forest and Biological Reserves, and seven that

include Marine Management Areas, Absolute

Natural Reserves, and National Monuments –

established in the National laws of the Republic of

Costa Rica [2].

In addition to the aforementioned anthropological

factors, it should be noted that the territory belongs

to the Central American Dry Corridor (CSC) -

which is characterized by extreme

hydrometeorological events (droughts) that

negatively affect productive and populated systems

[8]. Within the CSC fringe, a high vulnerability to

drought can occur [9]. What impacts agricultural

and livestock areas, especially basic grains and

cattle [9].

The relevance of this type of research lies in

bringing to the discussion about the models of

interaction of native peoples with the environment

to address the challenge of drought. For this, a

recount of the current production model in the

agricultural sector is made since it is one of the

sectors most affected by the cyclical phenomenon

of drought. It is concluded that one production

62,76%

7,60%

5,73%

7,07%

8,62%

7,81%0,40%

0,02%

Central Chorotega Pacífico Central

Brunca Huetar Caribe Huetar Norte

Otros Países Ignorado

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model or another contributes more to facing the

drought's challenges. However, a varied panorama

is presented to be considered in future research.

2 Materials and Methods

For the reflective construction on the drought and

the challenges that it implies, the methodological

approach begins with the deconstruction of the

parameters binding to this natural event. The

relationship between forest, climate, precipitation,

use of natural resources, and demand is analyzed

and exercised by the developed towns and

economic activities.

The analysis method is based on the review of

bibliography, news, maps, databases, among others,

which were selected under the premise of the exact

interrelation of the data. In addition, the set of

elements that make up the causes and effects of

drought is recreated.

The various natural elements that contribute to

drought control are analyzed along the same lines.

Thus, the main actors to exercise drought control

and the current proposal are presented. Finally, the

data presented show the values for each of the

challenging actions on the drought issue. In fact,

these data try to explain the reality of the

relationships and the result of the absence or not of

actions carried out in the country.

3 Results

For Quesada-Hernández, Hidalgo, and Alfaro [8] it

is essential to define the drought. These authors

point out that the severity of the phenomenon is

related to the duration, affected area, soil

characteristics, time of year, human activities,

demand for water resources, frequency, and

intensity. In general, droughts are measured by

precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, and

soil moisture [8]. However, it is of utmost

importance not only to incorporate the historical

physical records, but it is also urgent to incorporate,

in the comprehensive analysis, aspects of the

environmental, social, and economic impact caused

by a phenomenon of this type.

As a result of this phenomenon, which has the

Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), La Niña, the

Low-Level Jet of the Caribbean, and other climatic

processes [9], the most affected region is the North

Pacific. In 2006, droughts caused losses of

107,553,826 million dollars (USD), representing

5.9% of the total national losses due to extreme

natural events and natural disasters [10].

Between 2017-2018, the rainfall reported by the

stations located in Linda Vista (Guarco) and

Buenos Aires (Pindeco) has decreased, 8% and 5%,

respectively. Between 2018-2019, 8.9% (Linda

Vista, el Guarco) and 21.5% (Buenos Aires,

Pindeco) continue with the same downward trend.

The Juan Santamaría, San José (IMN), and

Turrialba Airport stations show an oscillating

behavior; However, the general trend is down

compared to 2017, in which the precipitation data

have been higher [11].

The Juan Santamaría Airport, in the period 2017-

2018, reduces by 49%, and between 2018-2019, it

increases by 56.5%. However, the amount of

rainfall in 2019 (1681.2 millimeters) is lower than

in 2017 (2105 millimeters). The San José station

(IMN), between 2017-2018, decreased by 47.2%.

On the contrary, between 2018-2019, it increased

to 39%, but the rainfall in 2019 (1873.4

millimeters) did not reach the total of 2553.2

millimeters reported in 2017 [11].

Another station that presents the same phenomenon

is Turrialba, the data for 2017-2018 indicates a

decrease of 11.6%, and for 2018-2019 it increases

by 15.9%; However, in 2019, rainfall is lower

(2239.5 millimeters) compared to 2017 (2387.4). It

is important to note that of 7 stations with data

recorded from 2017 to 2019, six do not reach the

level of 2017 (comparing the years 2017 and 2019)

[11].

On the contrary, the Limón (Airport) and La Selva

(Sarapiquí) stations report a similar behavior to the

previous ones, but with the difference that the

measurements of 2019 compared to those of 2017

exceed those of this year. Limón (Airport)

decreases rainfall by 23.8% in the 2018-2019

period, but the total rainfall for 2019 (3591.7

millimeters) exceeds that of 2017 (2418.2

millimeters). Similarly, La Selva (Sarapiquí)

decreases from 2018 to 2019 by 22.6% but

compared to 2017 (3482.9 millimeters), 2019

(4225.1 millimeters) is higher, which indicates that

this area is the only one in the country with this

particular behavior [11].

The Ciudad Neily station (Coto 49) reports a

decrease in rainfall in 2017 (6857.6) compared to

2019 (4919.6). Moreover, the Puntarenas and

Pacayas stations register data only for 2019, 1223.4

and 1848.2 millimeters, respectively (see figure 2).

It is essential to highlight that the absence of data in

the stations of Puntarenas, Pacayas, and Ciudad

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Neily (Coto 49) limits the total comparison by

periods. It is worth mentioning that rainfall that

tends to fall does not represent a drought in the

territory; however, special attention should be paid

to this trend [11].

According to the National Meteorological Institute

(IMN) and the Regional Committee for Hydraulic

Resources (RCHR) [13];in fact, there is an

increasing trend of extreme dry events (see figure

3).

Fig. 2: Costa Rica: Annual precipitation, according to the season, 2017-2019 (in millimeters).

Source: Based on the data of INEC [12]. * The data for the Puntarenas station, to date, is not complete.

**** The Pacayas and Ciudad Neily stations have months with missing data.

*** For 2019, the Juan Santamaría and Limón Airport stations correspond to stations 84233 and 81013,

respectively.

Fig. 3: Costa Rica: Frequency of extreme dry events (%).

Source: Comité Regional de Recursos Hidráulicos [13].

On the contrary, the forest cover of different types

is composed of the mature forest representing

coverage of 1,548,583.38 ha, followed by grass

with 1,219,425.65 ha trees; the secondary forest has

an area of 940,820.31 ha; there are 74,596.85 forest

plantations (see figure 4) [14].

Fig. 4: Costa Rica: Type of Forest in hectares (Ha). 2015.

Source: Adapted from Programa REDD/CCAD-GIZ - SINAC [14].

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1400000

1600000

Bosque maduro Bosque

secundario

Rodales de

Mangle

Bosques de

Palma

Pasto con árboles Plantaciones

forestales

Área en Hectárea

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Suppose the relationship between precipitation and

forest cover is taken as a basis. In that case, it could

be considered that the Atlantic area of the country

does not have drought problems and, on the

contrary, the northern area has the most significant

droughts.

The challenge of drought in the country is

associated, in part, with the significant changes

throughout national history in the agricultural

sector due to institutional policies and the behavior

of the national and international market. Regarding

institutional policies, the sector's increased

agricultural productivity has been promoted

through value-added programs.

It should be noted that the cultivation and export of

bananas, pineapple, African palm, and coffee

account for 48.5% of the added value in the sector

[15]. Therefore, any hydrometeorological event

directly affects the national economy, as happened

in 2015 when the sector's contraction occurred

mainly due to these events [15].

Despite the fact that between 2014 and 2017, an

average of 1 304 558 million colones was allocated

in both sectors, even though there have been

critical natural phenomena such as: “(...) drought in

the Pacific, floods in the Caribbean, eruptions of

the Turrialba volcano, Hurricane Otto and Storm

Nate” [15].

In addition to the presence of droughts and the

characteristics of the soils, mainly sloping land, and

physical and chemical aspects [9], the lack of

technology makes it difficult to diversify

production systems, limiting competitiveness in

international markets [ 9].

In a Senara report [16], it is stated that "climate

change generates water scarcity in Guanacaste,"

and Miranda [17] underlines that "Central America

is only responsible for 0.5% of greenhouse gas

emissions and the region it is considered one of the

most vulnerable to the global environmental crisis"

and with the problem of food security [18]. It

should be noted that experts from the UCR affirm

that the province of Guanacaste, in which critical

agricultural activities are carried out, is drier than

the rest of the Central American countries that

belong to the CSC [19]. In summary, "climate

change has direct and indirect impacts on

ecosystems and biodiversity" [20].

To address the drought in Guanacaste, the State has

developed the Arenal Reservoir with which the dry

areas of the region are irrigated. Currently, “ (…)

the waters from the Arenal reservoir are used three

times by the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity

(ICE) for electricity generation, to later be used for

agricultural irrigation in the cantons of Liberia,

Cañas and Bagaces” [16].

On the other hand, Muñoz and Nicaragua relate the

drought problem to the lack of systems for

improving land use. This is due to communication

and information systems shortcomings, combined

with the digital literacy gap [ twenty-one]. In this

sense, the lack of knowledge of the impact

generated by the alliance of agribusiness with the

oil and chemical industries, which "offers food at

low prices but with 'enormous' ecological,

economic and social externalities" [22].

As a reflection to address the challenge of drought

in the country, it not only requires investment in

infrastructure for irrigation, investment in

production processes and international markets in

the agricultural sector, improvement in land use, or

recognizing the gaps in the communication and

information system. The challenge of the drought

in Costa Rica lies in recognizing the dynamics of

the CSC to guide sustainable development policies.

4 Discussion

Based on the impact of the drought, the discussion

precisely includes all sectors, since, when one link

of the production system is affected, the rest suffer

the impact, in some cases such as water supply,

production costs increased considerably. In others,

such as the impact produced by burning due to

droughts, it is invaluable from the loss of

ecosystems.

Other factors can alter the impacts that drought

brings, such as population growth or territorial

development policies. As the population increases,

the pressure on the water resource is more

significant, while the demand for drinking water

and the need for environmental sanitation systems

increase.

On another line, drought can be controlled by

expanding forested areas. Given this statement, the

UN highlights that the best managers of forests in

Latin America are indigenous peoples [23].

In Costa Rica, the population of native peoples is

made up of 8 indigenous peoples (Bribris,

Cabécares, Borucas or Bruncas, Chootegas,

Huetares, Malekus or Guatusos, Ngöbes or

Guaymíes, Térrabas or Teribes) and they have 24

indigenous territories distributed throughout the

country [24]. It is determined that most of the

territory is located in the southern zone (see figure

5).

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Fig. 5: Costa Rica: Indigenous territories in 2011.

Source: INEC [25]

The basic principle of caring for the forest is

education, in other words, the ability to transmit the

value of forest conservation from generation to

generation: "Our grandmothers kept telling us that

if we did not take care of her, Irìria would get sick.

That is what is happening outside our territories",

comments Edith Villanueva Reyes, one of the

leaders of the Association of the Commission of

Indigenous Women of Talamanca (Acomuita) [26].

This development of training capacities has

allowed indigenous peoples to implement

sophisticated conservation and interaction systems

with the forest and ensure the very existence of the

population. The conception of natural resources

transcends the extractive and exploitative approach

of resources, their value, perhaps not found in

commercial principles but the essence of preserving

the ecosystem and the environment as a whole

Another activity that has been implemented in the

country is reforestation. Through the Payment for

Environmental Services (PES) project, the country

has increased the amount of forest cover in the

Territory (see figure 6).

Fig. 6: Costa Rica: Map of Payment Projects for Environmental Services in 2012-2018.

Source: BioCosta Rica [27].

The increase in coverage areas in the territory has

had positive results; however, it is not enough to

correct the problems of droughts in the national

territory. The productive sectors such as

agriculture, livestock, and aquaculture require

strategic and contingency plans to address the

environmental, economic, and social risks that the

phenomenon of drought brings with it. These plans

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must strengthen the value-added chains and their

differentiating attributes to develop the proposed

strategic plan.

5 Conclusions

The conviction that the environmental policy

regarding the increase of forest cover has left

tangible results, such as the territories dedicated to

reforestation, conservation, protection, and

recovery of wildlife refuge areas. However, the

challenges of decreasing rainfall in most of the

country and the presence of more extended periods

of droughts are urgent to be incorporated into

national sustainable development agendas.

Another element that must be taken up promptly is

the production chains, which must be attended to

integrally. For this, it must be provided with the

necessary resources to accompany it in the

application and adoption of sustainable production

systems.

6 Study Limitations and Prospective

Research Lines

This research advances our knowledge and

sensibility about this global relevant issue - once it

directly influences the territory of Costa Rica and

indirect impacts worldwide due to the critical

ecosystemic role in the world's biodiversity.

Nevertheless, and bearing in mind that the current

work is only preliminary research, several research

prospects remain. In this regard, for example, if

more advanced statistics were used, the results

could be more exciting and accurate. Also, if more

variables and different fields within the sustainable

development [28-40] concept were considered, a

better view we obtain over all these issues impacts.

Nevertheless, future lines of research must

necessarily consider the social, political, and

natural aspects to carry out the comprehensive

analysis required by the challenge of drought. It is

impossible to understand drought only as a

phenomenon that occurs in the CSC; it is essential

to recognize the presence of the human being and

the natural baggage that interacts on the site.

Likewise, it is crucial to rethink the possibility of

carrying out research in maritime-terrestrial areas,

which are already affected by droughts. It is also

correct to discuss the current and future resources

to face the drought.

As final remarks, similar studies should be carried

out in other territories and geographies to allow

some comparisons between countries; therefore, it

will enable to find common solutions regarding this

increasing problem easily.

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Contribution of Individual Authors to the

Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting

Policy)

All the authors contributed equally to the

development of the present paper. All phases of the

paper development have been proper discussed and

worked on by the authors. All authors have read

and agreed to the published version of the

manuscript.

Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a

Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself

This paper is financed by Portuguese national funds

through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a

Tecnologia, I.P., project number

UIDB/00685/2020. Also, the project is funded

under the program of the Minister of Science and

Higher Education titled “Regional Initiative of

Excellence” in 2019-2022, project number

018/RID/2018/19, the amount of funding PLN 10

788 423,16”.

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n_US

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DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.89

Roxana Durán Sosa,

Rui Alexandre Castanho, Gualter Couto

E-ISSN: 2224-2899

1027

Volume 19, 2022