International Trade Theories and Decision-Making Areas in the Field of
Development Strategy
STADNICKI JERZY, OKSANYCH OLEKSANDR
Faculty of Management and Computer Modelling
Kielce University of Technology
Al.Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314
POLAND
Key-Words: International trade, causes of international trade, theories of international trade, resistance
to distance, strategy of development
Received: July 28, 2021. Revised: December 15, 2021. Accepted: January 21, 2022. Published: January 25, 2022.
1 Introduction
International trade has reached enormous
proportions, bringing significant benefits not only to
its participants but also to the entire population. At
the same time, international trade poses certain
threats related to dumping and / or relocation of
goods to other countries. In the context of
globalization and increasing competition, the
problem of choosing a development strategy at the
level of the national economy and at the level of
enterprises is becoming increasingly important. This
requires identifying the causes of international trade
and taking them into account when making strategic
decisions.
The aim of the article is to substantiate the
reasons for international trade and the choice of
priorities in the process of forming a strategy for the
development of the national economy in the context
of globalization, taking into account the resistance
of distance, key factors of economic growth and the
nature of relations with the global economic
environment.
The research used methods of critical analysis
and synthesis (generalization) and logical methods,
as well as the method of "desk research".
2 Problem Formulation
In order to predict trends in international trade and
its impact on the socio-economic situation of
individual countries since ancient times, attempts
are made to explain the causes of international trade,
i.e. attempts to create theories of international trade
[5,10, 12, 13, 24, 27, 29, 33, 35, 36, 39]. Studies of
the causes of international trade, which claim to be
called theories of international trade, are popular
(their number has long exceeded a damn dozen), but
this is precisely the situation where quantity has not
turned into quality. The fact is that there are actually
4 (four) basic causes of international trade and
related theories, and all the others are at best just
camouflaged basic.
First, natural and geographical differences
between states determine the need (rational,
sometimes irrational) in the purchase of necessary
goods: natural resources; agricultural raw materials;
even any goods produced in another country, which
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Abstract: According to the authors' concept, there are 4 main reasons for conducting international trade: natural
and geographical differences between states; differences in production costs in different countries; the effect of
specialization on the production of a good with a greater relative advantage; effect of scale of production). These
reasons are necessary, but not sufficient for the appearing of international trade, since any of the options for
international trade can be implemented only under the conditions of acceptable "distance resistance", the main
features of which are technical capabilities, costs , safety and speed of transportation). The article presents the
author's concept of choosing a development strategy at the state or corporate levels, according to which the key
determinants are distance resistance, nature of interaction with the environment (offensive or defensive) and the
model of economic development (resource-based or knowledge-based).
gives them a halo of originality. The author of the
concept of differences in the criteria of the country
of production is Paul Armington, who in the article
"Theory of demand for products that differ in place
of production" argues that consumers tend to treat
identical goods from different countries as different
goods [6].
And although such an interpretation cannot be
considered rational, it is real. It is known that the
basis of prosperity of Greek cities and their colonies
has always been trade, but it should be borne in
mind that the Mediterranean is generally
homogeneous in climate, soil and flora, and
therefore could trade effectively not so much as a
product as its special qualities. It is believed that the
subtle differences in taste of wine and olive oil, the
subtle differentiation of shape and decor of ceramic
vessels became the basis of prosperity, and the
ability to distinguish subtle, tinted properties of
objects was rooted in reality - without this skill the
very formation of Greek civilization in its special
form would be impossible. But in fact a special
quality of wine, olive oil and ceramic vessels was
the production in another country-policy, although
located a few tens of miles.
The existence of such a situation seems to mean
that the natural and geographical differences of
countries make international trade inevitable,
because these differences cannot but exist.
However, not everything is so clear: the level of
demand (inside and outside the country) for such
specific goods at relatively high prices may not be
sufficient for profitable production, which, thus,
cancels the inevitability of international trade due to
natural and geographical differences between states.
It was Adam Smith in the famous work "Wealth
of Nations" for the first time argued that the country
can have natural advantages due to its climatic
characteristics or possession of certain natural
resources [37]. Since Adam Smith became the
official discoverer of this type of goods, they can
rightly be called "Adam Smith-goods". Formally,
"Adam Smith-goods" include identical goods, but
produced in different countries (because the country
is a geographical concept), but since Adam Smith
did not even mention them, these goods deserve to
be called "Paul Armington-goods", obviously in the
“Adam Smith-goods” group.
Secondly, due to various factors, there are
differences in production costs in different countries
and, if the magnitude of those differences is
significant enough, it is appropriate to export the
goods from a country of relatively cheap production
to a country where production is relatively
expensive. We can call them "Adam Smith-good-2",
because this scientist is associated with the theory of
absolute advantages, according to which the cause
of international trade is the difference in costs
(Adam Smith reduced all costs to labor costs, which
was a "universal currency" in his research) on the
production of identical goods in different countries.
Third, David Ricardo argued that international
trade could exist even if one country had an absolute
advantage in the production of two goods, because it
was more profitable for it to focus on the production
and export of goods with a greater relative
advantage and a good with a smaller relative
advantage. to import [30, 7]. Undoubtedly, "David
Ricardo-goods" will be the most numerous in the
range and volume of international trade. It is worth
noting that the "relative advantage" is the ratio of
costs in different countries for the production of
identical goods, and "greater or lesser relative
advantage" refers to the comparison of indicators of
"relative advantages" of different goods.
Fourth, the effects of scale of production are
also an important cause of international trade [11].
The optimal scale of production, which provides
maximum efficiency, often exceeds the demand
within a country, which necessitates exports. Even
in the absence of other preconditions for
international trade, the effect of scale makes
international specialization expedient, in which
some countries specialize in the production of
certain goods (for themselves and for export), and
other countries - in the production of other goods
(also for themselves and for export). We can call
such goods "Paul Krugman-goods", because it is
with this scientist (Paul Krugman) associated with
the relevant research, which earned the Nobel Prize
in Economics for "a new theory of international
trade" [17, 18, 19].
Now that we have an approach to the causes of
international trade, we can move on to a brief
analysis of other theories of international trade and
the justification that they are at best only
camouflaged basic. The first theory of international
trade is the theory of mercantilism (XV century),
according to which a nation becomes richer and
more powerful when it exports more than it imports.
According to the theory of mercantilism, the
positive balance of foreign trade will remain in the
country in the form of precious metals, including
gold and silver [14, 15].
If this approach will be analyzed the aspects of
the feasibility of trade, the need for trade between
countries appeares at the time, when in other
countries you can buy and delive to your country
goods, which will be cheaper than its producing in
your country, or in another country you can buy and
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delive to your country goods, which never
produced for any reason in its own country or
produced in insufficient quantities. The
accumulation of precious metals can be interpreted
as fashion of then times, which allow treat a theory
of mercantilism as one of the theories of fashion on
precious metals. Precious metals are exported from
countries where they will be cheap, to countries
where they were more expensive, only due to the
influence of these four reasons (or their
combinations):
- natural and geographical differences between
countries (some countries possessed significant
deposit precious metals ("Adam Smith-goods"),
- spatial differentiation of production costs ("Adam
Smith-goods"-2),
- the relative advantage in the production of some
goods ("David Ricardo-goods"),
- the effect of large-scale production (‘Paul
Krugman-goods‘).
A popular theory of international trade is the
Heckscher-Olin theory (Heckscher-Olin theory),
according to which countries that export products of
intensive use of surplus factors and import products
of intensive use of deficient factors for them [20,
26]. The provisions of the Heckscher-Olin theory
were later "mathematically supported" by Paul
Samuelson, who in 1948 "proved the theorem of
equalization of prices for factors of production", in
accordance with it international trade leads to the
payment of absolute and relative prices for
homogeneous factors of production. homogeneous
capital is capital that has the same productivity and
risk; education and productivity; homogeneous land
is land with one family, soil condition, etc.) in
trading countries [8, 31, 32].
First on the Heckscher-Olin theory. Countries
can export goods that, for various reasons, can be
produced cheaper on their territory than on the
territory of importing countries. The presence of
surplus factors is one of the reasons for the spatial
differentiation of production costs, which, according
to Adam Smith, is one of the causes of international
trade. Therefore, Heckscher-Olin's theory can in no
way claim to be the original theory of international
trade, because in fact it is completely within the
limits of Adam Smith's theory of absolute
advantages in the part "Adam Smith-good-2".
Now about the "equalization of prices" for
homogeneous factors of production according to
Paul Samuelson. What kind of equalization can we
talk about if the difference in prices of the same
quality of labour in different countries is a constant
factor in the socio-economic development of
civilization. The price of land of the same quality in
different countries can differ dramatically, because,
unlike labour, land is not a mobile resource. The
same can be said about the price of capital - non-
mobile capital of the same quality can differ
significantly in price in different countries. And
only mobile capital of the same quality can be
characterized by a tendency to "equalize prices" in
different countries. A brief analysis of the theory of
"price equalization" for homogeneous factors of
production is general and has no bearing on the
causes of international trade, because Paul
Samuelson did not claim "his" theory of
international trade. Paul Samuelson's mistake of
"equalizing prices" for homogeneous factors of
production is not surprising against the background
of another fundamental mistake of the Nobel
laureate: in 1961 he made the absurd assumption
that between 1984 and 1997 the Soviet Union would
overtake the United States in size of economy.
Raymond Vernon's theory of the international
product life cycle, proposed in 1966, states that
some products go through a cycle that consists of
four stages: implementation, growth, maturity, and
decline; the production of these products moves
from one country to another depending on the stage
of the cycle [41]. At the first stage (implementation)
innovations are developed in response to the
identified need. As a rule, the main role here
belongs to industrialized countries. At the second
stage (growth) the country of innovation in parallel
with domestic production of a new product can
begin its release abroad. In addition, the release of
the same product can be started by a foreign
competitor, and he can do so with minor changes in
the product, bypassing patent protection or
purchasing some licenses. The produced products
remain almost entirely in the country where the new
enterprise was established.
In the third stage (maturity), global demand for
a new product begins to level off. The technology of
production of a new product becomes so advanced
that additional knowledge to reduce costs is no
longer so necessary. The product becomes
standardized, so its production in a country with a
high level of technology loses its meaning.
Production of goods is moved to other countries,
which can use the already standard technology,
reducing the unit cost of production. Lower costs
make it possible to increase sales in underdeveloped
countries. Finally, in the fourth stage (decline),
technology and equipment are so improved that the
production of goods no longer requires special
skills, and therefore it moves to underdeveloped
countries that have a surplus of cheap labour.
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In Raymond Vernon's theory, everything seems
logical, but a deeper analysis shows that in fact the
reasons for moving production from country to
country are not problems with the availability of
production technology, but the usual geographical
differences of countries (if in some countries it is
impossible to produce any benefit lack of the
necessary resources, such as skilled labor) or the
usual spatial differentiation of production costs.
Therefore, the benefits that could be called
"Raymond Vernon-benefits" are actually "Adam
Smith-benefits" or "Adam Smith-benefits-2".
In 1961, Michael Posner proposed the theory of
technological advancement (Theory of
Technological Gap), according to which one of the
reasons for international trade is technological
innovation, which allows an innovator country to
obtain a quasi-monopoly on new products and
export it profitably and without competition. ,
importing non-knowledge-intensive products [28].
Over time, the technological gap narrows due to
technology transfer, import substitution, and the
introduction of alternative technologies in other
countries. Then it all starts again: new innovative
solutions (not necessarily in the same country) lead
to new export-import flows. Although the theory of
technological advancement is considered by some
scientists to be a branch of the Heckscher-Olin
theory, it can rather be called a component of
Raymond Vernon's theory in the first stage of the
product life cycle (implementation). If the
implementation phase is implemented in one
country, it is not due to the impossibility of its
implementation in another country, but due to the
high cost of this in the absence of the necessary
resources, especially such as specialized
infrastructure and qualified personnel. Non-mobile
resources (specialized infrastructure) will need to be
created and mobile (qualified personnel) will need
to be imported, which will require significant
investment costs and a lot of time. Therefore, the
potential "Michael Posner-good" is actually "Adam
Smith-good-2".
One of the theories of international trade is
often called the gravitational model, according to
which trade between two countries is directly
proportional to the product of their economic
potential and inversely proportional to the distance
between them [1, 2, 3, 40]. In addition to gross
domestic product (GDP), the significance of
countries' economies is modeled in gravitational
equations by population, country area, border
length, and so on. It can be agreed that the "force of
economic gravity", ie the size of trade between
countries depends on the distance between them and
the size of their economies, but they do not
determine international trade. Gravitational theory
to some extent explains the volume of international
trade, but not its causes.
Among the theories of international trade, there
are those that try to explain it not in terms of
production of goods, but in terms of their
consumption. One of the first attempts to explain the
peculiarities of modern international trade was made
by Staffan Linder in 1961, considering the features
of technologically new products (refrigerators,
televisions) with which American firms entered the
European market in the 1950s. [23] He pointed out
that although the main inventions underlying the
development of these goods were made by
Europeans, they were practically embodied in the
United States in the form of technologically new
goods, which then conquered the foreign market in
Europe.
According to Stephen Linder, the wealthy
American consumer was more inclined to consume
new expensive goods, and as Europeans' living
standards rose, new American goods found their
way to Europe. Stefan Linder concluded that
technologically complex products are created by the
firm in response to existing needs, ie primarily to
the needs of the domestic market. And only after the
expansion of production, after saturation of the
domestic market, the firm seeks to capture the
external. The firm will enter the foreign market on
the basis of goods prepared by it for domestic
consumers, therefore, the consumption structure of
the importing country should be as similar as
possible to the consumption structure of the
exporting country. Thus, according to Stefan Linder,
not only differences but also similarities between
countries can be a prerequisite for trade.
In describing this theory, it should be noted at
once that the "rich American consumer" could easily
buy technologically new goods even if they were
produced in Europe or, as has been the case in
recent decades, in Japan, South Korea, or China. It
was not the "rich American consumer" at the time,
but the well-functioning US economy, which made
it possible to produce high-tech products at
relatively low cost. We all remember the days when
American scientists made many inventions that were
the basis for the production of goods in Japan - and
not so much for domestic consumption as for export
(including the United States). That is, Stefan
Linder's theory, when properly analyzed, turns out
to be Adam Smith's camouflaged theory of absolute
benefits in terms of the benefits gained (resulting in
the production and export of Adam Smith-goods-2.).
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A rich country can import goods instead of
producing them first for its market and then for
export.
3 Problem Solution
Thus, as a result of our study it is substantiated that
despite the development of scientists over 10
theories of international trade, only four of them are
correct and they can be called basic (these are the
theories according to which causes of international
trade are: 1) natural and demographic differences
between countries; 2) differences between
production costs in different countries; 3) the effect
of specialization on the production of goods with a
greater relative advantage; 4) the effect of
production scale. All other theories are false or
camouflaged (consciously or accidentally).
The conclusions obtained as a result of the study
are the basis for the classification of goods in
international trade by the names of the authors of
the basic theories. Goods that are traded due to
natural and geographical differences between states
can be called " the Adam Smith - goods". Goods
that are traded due to the spatial differentiation of
production costs are "Adam Smith - good 2". Goods
that are traded due to the effects of the country's
specialization in the production of goods with a
greater relative advantage can be called "David
Ricardo - goods." And the goods that are traded
between countries due to the effect of the scale of
production - are "Paul Krugman - goods".
The existence of four basic causes of
international trade presupposes the possibility of the
existence of 15 variants of international trade,
which can characterize the situation in international
trade for a single country or between two countries
(Table 1).
Each of the following table. 1 option covers one
or more reasons that determine the international
trade of a single country or trade between two
countries.
For example, for option 1, the reason for
international trade is only natural and geographical
differences between countries. Similar in content to
this option are options 8, 12 and 14, which are also
characterized by only one reason for international
trade, namely: differences in production costs in
different countries (option 8), the effect of
specialization in the production of goods with a
greater relative advantage (option 12), the effect of
production scale (option 14). Fundamentally, there
are four options where the reason for international
trade is only one.
There are as many as six options for the reasons
for international trade. For example, option 2
combines reason 1 (natural-geographical differences
between countries) and 2 (differences in production
costs in different countries), and option 5 - reason 1
and 3 (the effect of specialization in the production
of goods with a greater relative advantage), etc. In
turn, there are 4 options with the three reasons for
international trade, namely: option 3 (reasons 1,2
Table 1. Potential options for international trade by the criterion of its causes
Options for
trade between
countries
Reasons for international trade
2) differences in
production costs in
different countries
3) the effect of
specialization in the
production of goods
with a greater relative
advantage
4) effect of
production
scale
1
-
-
-
2
+
-
-
3
+
+
-
4
+
+
+
5
-
+
-
6
-
-
+
7
-
+
+
8
+
-
-
9
+
+
-
10
+
-
+
11
+
+
+
12
-
+
-
13
-
+
+
14
-
-
+
15
+
-
+
Source: own development
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and 3), option 7 (reasons 1, 3 and 4), option 11
(reasons 2, 3 and 4) and option 15 (reasons 1, 2 and
4). Obviously, the only option that covers all four
causes of international trade is option 4. Thus, there
are 15 options for international trade by the criterion
of its causes.
Although combinatorics may offer another
option, since the total number of options for the four
elements is 16, this 16th option is a variant of
economic autarky that does not involve international
trade and is therefore not of interest to us in this
article.
It is worth noting that any of the options of
international trade can be realized only under
conditions of acceptable "distance resistance" (DR)
(the main features of which are technical
capabilities, costs, safety and speed of
transportation). These 4 reasons for international
trade (natural and geographical differences between
countries; differences in production costs in
different countries; the effect of specialization in the
production of goods with a greater relative
advantage; the effect of scale) are necessary but not
sufficient for international trade, because with
significant DR production must take place close to
the market and focus, obviously, on local resources,
as significant DR will be not only for the goods to
be produced, but also for the resources needed
to produce these goods.
Only the reduction of DR (primarily due to the
development of transport communications) in the
presence of at least one cause of international trade
activates the potential of international trade, making
it possible to remove the place of production of
goods from the place of consumption (Table 2).With
percetible (average) level of DR there are
precondition for international trade, there is a search
for places of production by the criterion of
minimum total costs for production of goods
and its transportation to markets (or transportation
of consumers to non-mobile goods) in the
appropriate analysis space. The shape and size of
the analysis space is influenced by the OB, which,
in turn, depends on the properties of the good
(suitability for transportation) and the properties of
the analysis space itself (availability of transport
communications, belonging to a certain customs
space, etc.).
With weak or absent DR, there are significant
preconditions for international trade, and the search
for places of production on the criterion of
minimum costs for the production of goods is
performed in the space of analysis, usually the
whole world. Only in exceptional situations can the
form and size of the analysis space depend on the
policy of the community of states or an individual
state in the field of national security, when
restrictions are imposed on the production of
strategic products in other countries.
On the situation regarding international trade
from table 2 can be said in sectoral, spatial and
historical aspects. The sectoral aspect is the
dependence of the DR on the characteristics of the
good: in the delineated space and time, the DR for
different goods will usually be different (the sectoral
aspect of the DR is studied by a special science
"cargo science"). The spatial aspect of international
trade situations depends on the specificity of the
area to which the good must be transported from the
place of production to foreign markets (or foreign
consumers to the place of production of goods in the
case of non-mobile goods): one thing when it comes
to mountain areas, and it is another matter when it
comes to sea space. The historical aspect is the
change in time of DR in different industries and
spaces, as well as the fact that in general for DR is
Table 2. Reasons for international trade and distance resistance
Reasons for
international
trade
Distance resistance (DR)
Strong DR
Perceptible DR
Weak DR
1, 2, 3, 4
There are no
prerequisites for
international trade,
as production
should be close to
the market
Prerequisites for international trade are,
as it is advisable to produce in places
(within the relevant analysis space) with
a minimum amount of costs for the
production of goods and their
transportation to markets (or
transportation of consumers to non-
mobile goods)
The prerequisites for
international trade are
significant, as it is
advisable to produce in
places with minimal
costs and sell worldwide
Source: own development
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characterized by a tendency to decrease over time in
all spaces and industries. And also the historical
aspect is that sometimes new spaces and new
industries with their characteristic indicators of DR
can appear. An example of such a new industry is
the international trade in greenhouse gas emission
rights, which is characterized by the complete
absence of DR, as such trade does not involve the
relocation of material objects.
The choice of the model of economic
development of each country is to some extent
determined by the influence of the international
environment, one of the manifestations of which is
the DR. Therefore, when developing a development
strategy both at the state level and at the level of
enterprises, the indicators of environmental
protection must be taken into account. In some
cases, they can be crucial.
Of course, DR is not the only factor that
determines the priorities of development, its goals
and ways to achieve them. It is advisable when
choosing a strategy to take into account global
trends in economic development, among which are:
- changing the resource model of economic
growth in favor of a knowledge-based economy;
- increasing the level of competition in world
markets, due to globalization and accelerating the
transfer of technological systems and their
components.
Taking into account these key determinants
makes it possible to form a set of possible areas for
choosing the appropriate development strategy at
both the corporate and national levels.
A simplified three-dimensional model of this
approach is presented in Fig. 1.
The measurement of DR is represented by
strong, tangible and weak levels.
The measurement of the development model
involves the possibility of choosing between the
classical resource model, the model of the transition
type and the model of the economy, which bases its
development on knowledge. The basic growth factor
in the case of choosing a resource model is the use
of any resources [38]. Instead, in the case of a
knowledge-based economy, a key factor in
development is the ability of the economy to
generate and effectively use new knowledge in its
various forms (formalized and informal, implicit
and explicit, "hard" and "soft").
Offensive strategy
Defensive strategy
Resouce developed
model
Mixed developed
model
Knowlege based
model
Strong
distance
resistance
Perceptible
distance
resistance
Weak
distance
resistance
Fig. 1: Simplified three-dimensional model of areas of choice of corporate development strategy
(development of the national economy)
Source: own development.
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The influence of the market environment forces
us to choose between defensive and offensive
strategy, which is reflected in the third dimension of
the model.
The presented model makes it possible to
formulate strategic goals and methods of their
achievement, based on the answers to the following
key questions:
- what is the resistance of distance and to what
extent it can affect the ability of the economy
(enterprise) to develop dynamically;
- what is the existing model of economic
development and how it is able to ensure the
competitiveness of the economy (enterprise) in the
global market;
- what type of relations with the environment
(offensive or defensive) will allow to use the
potential of the economy (enterprise) with the
highest efficiency and the lowest risks in the
strategic time horizon.
4 Conclusion
Further research on the subject of the article is
promising in the direction of developing a
methodology for determining the share of each of
the four causes of international trade in terms of
total international trade of individual countries and
in terms of bilateral trade between different pairs of
countries. An important area of further research is
the evaluation of DR for various benefits in bilateral
trade between countries.
The presented approach to the choice of
corporate development strategy / development of the
national economy focuses on three dimensions. In
practice, its use will require not only the
specification of each of them, but also taking into
account other dimensions that may be associated
with the specific conditions of the national economy
or its individual industries. This is even more true at
the corporate level. In this case, the choice of
development strategy depends on a much wider
range of determinants, which include, in particular,
the company's market position, industry structure
and nature of competition, the level of integration
with the environment (cooperation network), the
size of the enterprise, its level of innovation and etc.
[4, 9, 16, 22, 25].
The level of the economy is determined by the
level of competitiveness of companies. Companies
that belong to the group of leaders or contenders
have a significant advantage over imitators and
specialists, as they have much greater financial,
intellectual and material resources. These companies
are actively engaged in innovation activity and use
an offensive strategy in the market in order to
strengthen their competitive position and increase
market share.
Defensive strategy is used by imitators to
survive in the market. The imitator's strategy is
based on the transferred innovation and is forced.
The imitators are forced to implement changes
under the pressure of the leaders and contenders
activities in the field of innovation, so their strategy
can be identified defensive.
Based on the presented model, it is possible to
identify some of its "spatial" components (eg,
defensive strategy with low resistance to space and
in a knowledge-based economy). The boundaries of
each of these "spatial blocks" determine the
direction, scope and structure of further research
related to the problems of choosing a development
strategy. Detailing and concretization of these areas
of activity, according to the authors, lies in the plane
of very relevant and important issues.
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
Jerzy Stadnicki analyzed the scientific literature and
developed the concept that there are only four
causes of international trade Oleksandr Oksanych
developed a three-dimensional model of areas of
choice of corporate development strategy
Sources of Funding for Research Presented
in a Scientific Article or Scientific Article
Itself
The research, the results of which are presented in
the article, were financed by the University of
Technology in Kielce
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
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DOI: 10.37394/23207.2022.19.47
Stadnicki Jerzy, Oksanych Oleksandr
E-ISSN: 2224-2899
530
Volume 19, 2022