Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control versus contextual
factors influencing the entrepreneurial intentions of students from
Poland
URSZULA KOBYLIŃSKA
Faculty of Engineering Management
Bialystok University of Technology
45A Wiejska Street, Bialystok 15-351
POLAND
Abstract: Purpose: The article analyses the influence of personal and contextual variables on entrepreneurial intentions of
students from Poland. The article presents a structural model that has been developed from a set of student perceptions.
Chosen variables included in the model allows explaining and managing the formation of the intention in the context of
higher education. This study provides answers to the following questions: What role and which personal variables do play
importance in the formation of entrepreneurship intention in the case of young people? Which and how contextual variables
are important to enhance personal variables for entrepreneurial intentions?
Methodology: The research was carried out by using critical literature analysis as well as statistical research. In carrying out
this work, a causal quantitative methodology (structural equation modeling) was applied using the Amos program. Factor
analysis has also been used in a descriptive methodological context. The empirical research was conducted in first quarter
of 2020.
Findings: Research conducted on a sample of over 330 Polish students has shown that not all personal factors are statistically
significant in assessing the entrepreneurial intentions of young people. As the results show, subjective norms do not play a
significant role in the intention to take up self-employment. External (contextual) factors related to the broadly understood
environment supporting the future entrepreneur play an important role, but much less clear than the factors at the individual
level and generally indirectly influence entrepreneurial intentions, strengthening the entrepreneur's personal factors.
Practical Implications: The results suppose a theoretical and practical contribution to the promotion of entrepreneur
intentions of university students inside and outside the educational context. Entrepreneurship promotion programmes run by
universities must focus on developing the attitude of the potential entrepreneurs, conveying the message that, despite all the
obstacles that exist when launching a business, the entrepreneurship route can be an interesting alternative.
Originality/Value: In the study, the personal and contextual factors influencing the entrepreneurial intentions of students
were taken into account. The causal model generated on a sample of 332 Polish respondents shows the importance of
individual factors on entrepreneurial intentions and the impact of contextual constructs on personal factors. Contextual
variables (i.e. education, public policy, supporting entrepreneurial environments) were found to have a positive impact on
personal variables as well as entrepreneurial intentions.
Key-Words: entrepreneurial intention, Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), personal and contextual factors
Received: June 21, 2021. Revised: December 20, 2021. Accepted: January 5, 2022. Published: January 7, 2022.
1 Introduction
The literature on the subject confirms the
need to identify and strengthen the factors
determining the process of establishing new
companies, due to the high impact of
entrepreneurship on the economic development
of countries and regions [1] and the significant
role limiting unemployment through job
creation and self-employment. Researchers took
into account the important role that
entrepreneurship plays in economic
development and began to study the factors that
influence people to become entrepreneurs [2].
Reports and documents prepared periodically by
the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor confirm
that these factors are of an eminently personal
and contextual nature [3]. The Shapero and
Sokol (1982) model of an entrepreneurial event
[4] and the Ajzen (1987, 1991) model of planned
behavior [5,6] are the two most tested theories
that have been used in many studies to explain
entrepreneurial intentions. Intent models are
successfully implemented not only in social
psychology, but also in marketing and
management [7]. The models faced some
criticism and several authors emphasized the
importance of further clarifying the role played
by some personal variables such as motivation
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[8] or of in-depth analysis of external factors
such as political support, education, a supportive
business environment in the region or country.
Since intentions have been shown to be a
strong predictor of actual future behavior [9],
many studies have sought to determine which
factors positively influence entrepreneurial
intentions (EI) [10]. In addition, intent is the best
predictor of individual behavior, especially
when it is rare, difficult to observe or involves
unpredictable time delays [11]. As noted in
previous studies, entrepreneurial intentions
indicate how well prepared you are and how
much effort you intend to put in to implement
entrepreneurial behavior. When people have
considerable potential, they will refrain from
turning to entrepreneurship when they have no
intention.
In recent years, a number of articles have
been published in this area of research
identifying various factors that precede
entrepreneurial intentions, both individual and
contextual. One of the areas where many of
these studies are undertaken is higher education.
It is now generally accepted that education is
essential to the creation of an entrepreneurial
individual and therefore an entrepreneurial
community. Universities are pillars of
knowledge that provide students with the skills
needed to develop entrepreneurial tendencies
[12]. Earlier studies in this context analyzed the
role of students' personal and environmental
factors in shaping their entrepreneurial
intentions, but the results of these studies remain
contradictory [13-14]. The question is what
factors influence entrepreneurial intentions
among students.
The aim of the study described in this article
is to investigate the impact that certain variables,
identified as important in research on
entrepreneurial intentions in other countries,
have on the intentions of students in Poland. The
article presents the results of a survey conducted
among 332 students of Bialystok University of
Technology. The aim is to answer the question
which variables classified as personal and
contextual have an impact on entrepreneurial
intentions among students. In particular, the
study of the importance of contextual factors
(indirectly influencing entrepreneurial
intentions) (i.e. perceived educational,
governmental, institutional support) is a
contribution of this study.
The author chose the TBM model as the
theoretical basis for empirical research due to
the benefits it offers in the academic
environment [15-16]. In the TBM model, a
person's behavior is immediately determined by
his intention to perform (or not) that behavior. In
turn, the intention (EI) of behavior depends on
three elements: first, an entrepreneurial attitude
(EA); secondly, the subjective norm (SN),
which implies the belief of a person about the
presence of social pressure on him, that he
should perform or not perform a specific activity
and the motivation to satisfy these pressures;
and third, the perceived behavioral control (PC)
they have in a situation where they need to make
a decision and act. Previously conducted studies
described in the literature using TBM to explain
entrepreneurial attitudes suggest that EA, SN
and PC usually explain 30–45% of the variance
of intentions [17].
In particular, the aim of this study is to
analyze how the entrepreneurial intentions of
students in Poland are shaped, bearing in mind
that general entrepreneurship literature usually
identifies specific domains (e.g. personality
traits, intrinsic motivation and previous
experiences) and contextual variables (e.g.
social, economic or political context) as the two
main dimensions responsible for the formation
of EI [9,18].
Research results on a sample of over 330
students from Poland (studying at the Faculty of
Management Engineering/Bialystok University
of Technology) has shown that not all individual
factors are statistically significant in assessing
the entrepreneurial plans of young people. As
the results show, subjective norms do not play a
significant role in the intention to take up self-
employment. External (contextual) factors
related to the broadly understood environment
of the future entrepreneur play an important role,
but much less clear than the factors at the
individual level and generally indirectly
influence entrepreneurial intentions,
strengthening the entrepreneur's individual
factors.
The article is part of the research trend in
which it is possible to observe the need for
further analysis of entrepreneurial intentions in
the context of the student environment, using a
combination of individual and contextual factors
influencing their willingness to become an
entrepreneur.
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As indicated in the literature, entrepreneurial
intention (EI) is a state of mind leading to the
choice of self-employment over working for
someone else. Many studies, such as: [19,20]
analyze the positive relationship between EI and
entrepreneurial activity, as well as its
subsequent relationship with economic
development.
A lot of interest in researching
entrepreneurial intentions is related to many
factors. As research shows, intention has a
strong correlation with the behavior of creating
a firm; in some cases, this correlation even
exceeded 0.96 [21]. Intention also explains the
high percentage of the variance in
entrepreneurial behavior, and it is the variable
that most accurately predicts entrepreneurial
behavior [21,22]. On the other hand, intention is
a measure of the will and personal effort an
entrepreneur is willing to undertake to start a
business [23,24].
There are two models that serve as a guide to
understanding the development of
entrepreneurial intentions: Shapero and Sokola's
(1982) business event model (EEM) for a
business event [4], and Ajzen's planned behavior
(TPB) theory (1991)[5,6]. In the Shapero and
Sokol model, the intention of entrepreneurship
is shaped on the basis of perceived desire,
perceived vitality and propensity to act. Planned
action theory, on the other hand, holds that the
intention to start an activity depends on three
variables: attitude to behavior, perceived control
of behavior, and subjective norm.
Intent-based models are the subject of much
research in the fields of psychology, marketing,
and management, and previous research has
revealed very interesting empirical conclusions.
Due to the predictive power of intention over
entrepreneurial behavior, entrepreneurial
intention was used as a dependent variable in
most of the designed models [9,25]. Although
both models have been empirically tested and
provide satisfactory predictions of
entrepreneurial intentions, the use of planned
behavior theory is dominant in the literature [9].
The most influential articles on
entrepreneurial intention can be divided into
several groups. The first category includes
publications dealing with theoretical and
methodological issues testing major models.
The second category includes articles focusing
on variables such as gender, family roles, social
capital, and personality traits. The third group of
research concerns the role of education in the
context of entrepreneurship. Numerous
publications focus on the role of context and
institutions, including samples from several
countries. The last group of articles analyzes the
relationship between intention and behavior,
confirming the high predictive potential of
intention in entrepreneurial behavior [26].
Despite the research and findings, there are a
number of reasons why there is a need to deepen
the research on entrepreneurial intentions,
especially in the case of young people, because
there is a consensus in the literature about
personal factors influencing their
entrepreneurial intentions, and on the other hand
discrepancies in relation to other factors (e.g.
contextual) [27,28]. At the empirical level, the
emphasis is primarily on enriching the models
with significant variables influencing intentions
[29]. Especially when new generations will
make decisions about future careers.
In the literature, there is a need for a deeper
analysis of contextual factors that may affect
entrepreneurial attitudes of young people. The
identification of socio-economic, educational,
or political and legal factors may make people
aware of the role of the environment that the
governments of individual countries can
influence in shaping an entrepreneur-friendly
environment. At the contextual level, some
researchers suggest deepening the
understanding of how public institutions [30],
the country's culture [31] or entities from the
broadly understood support ecosystem [32]
influence the entrepreneurial intentions of
young people. There is also a need to investigate
a possible causal relationship between certain
education-related factors (e.g. the role of
education, relevant university entrepreneurship
courses) and factors that influence intentions
and/or behavior (e.g. attitudes, values) [33].
Some researchers suggest the need for further
comparative research into entrepreneurial
intentions at the regional level and in the context
of national / regional policy that builds a good
support ecosystem for entrepreneurs [31,34].
Many researchers believe that although
companies are created voluntarily and
intentionally [35], the basis for the unconscious
internalization of attitudes and values that will
eventually force an entrepreneur to create a
company is socialization [36]. This raises the
need to determine to what extent entrepreneurial
intentions and entrepreneurship are voluntary
and conscious or conditioned processes, e.g.
contextually through external support, access to
2 Theoretical background
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education, etc., which in turn may affect specific
personal variables and, consequently,
entrepreneurial intentions and behavior.
3 Conceptual model and hypotheses
Considering the main theoretical and
empirical relations discussed in the previous
chapter and taking into account the literature
review, the author proposes an explanatory
model for Polish students' entrepreneurial
intention based on their personal and contextual
dimensions influencing the entrepreneurship
process.
Below is Figure 1 of the concept model. This
model is characterized and distinguished from
other models by its simplification and
practicality, as well as taking into account
contextual variables (factors that make up the
broadly understood ecosystem of
entrepreneurship support, i.e. education, public
policy, business environment). The model starts
with personal (individual) factors that are crucial
to the intention to become an entrepreneur. The
model also shows the importance of contextual
factors that indirectly affect the intentions and
can largely shape the individual characteristics
of the entrepreneur.
Figure 1. Conceptual model
Source: own research
As the predecessors of individual factors
(directly affecting entrepreneurial intentions),
the author considers three personal variables
from the TPB model (closely related to the
entrepreneur): entrepreneurial attitude (A),
subjective norm (SN) and perceived control
(PC). Analyzing the literature and the results of
empirical research, it was noticed the need to
take into account new variables in the model of
entrepreneurial intentions, in particular the
variable BE (business environment, otherwise
business-friendly ecosystem) as a construct
predictor (SN); public policy (PP) as a construct
predictor (PC), and the education system (E) as
a construct predictor (A). The relationships and
rationale for including individual constructs in
the model of entrepreneurial intentions are
described below.
3.1. Attitude (A) and entrepreneurial
intention (I)
Attitudes are closely related to the favourable
predisposition of a person towards behaviour, in
this case, the behaviour of creating a company
[37,38]. The literature on people's attitudes to
their own involvement in entrepreneurial
activity suggests that they devote their efforts
and time to entrepreneurship, if they perceive
this activity as positive and professionally
stimulating, and also having the potential to
provide specific benefits, e.g. financial or social
status [32,39].
In the models that explain the formation of
entrepreneurial intention, attitudes influence the
intention and behaviour through other , such as
motivation and self-efficacy [40]. Specifically,
in the educational context, it has been proven
that the motivation to start a business are
effectively influenced by attitudes of students
towards entrepreneurship, and the attitude can
explain 50% of the variance [13].
If students are sympathetic to entrepreneurial
activities, it will mean a greater willingness to
spend time and effort creating a new business.
Therefore, the author make the following
hypothesis:
H1: Attitude positively influences students'
intention to become an entrepreneur
3.2 Perceived control (PC) and
entrepreneurial intention (I)
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This construct includes a sense of being
capable (having the skills necessary to start a
business and succeed in it), but also a belief in
being able to control behavior [22].
Perceived behavioral control is influenced by
beliefs about control, understood as assessing
one's abilities in overcoming specific obstacles
that may arise while setting up or driving
companies. Taking the polish reality as an
example, an individual may see it in bureaucracy
or any obstacles that make it difficult for her to
make a decision to set up
a company or about entering the path of
entrepreneurship. Such a group of perceived
obstacles affects the overall assessment of the
feasibility of a specific behavior, i.e. the
perceived behavioral control [41].
The literature generally agrees that the
perception of being in control is positively
related to the intention to become an
entrepreneur [32]. In this context, the following
hypothesis was put forward:
H2: PC positively influences students' intention
to become an entrepreneur
3.3 Subjective norms (SN) and
entrepreneurial intention (I)
Scientific research shows that in the regions
where there is a greater social acceptance for the
implementation of entrepreneurial activities, a
greater number of start-ups are created. This, in
turn, translates into more companies that
achieve success [42]. Not only the social
perception of entrepreneurship, but also the
assessment of this phenomenon expressed by
family members may determine the occurrence
entrepreneurial intentions. In the scientific
literature, one can find the claim that starting and
running your own business is impossible
without getting support from the family. this is
because its members interact very strongly [43].
The aforementioned support concerns not
only substantive or managerial assistance, but
also mental support manifested through
acceptance decisions made and motivating to
implement the decisions made. The unfavorable
attitude of family members towards
entrepreneurship often translates into reluctance
to pursue an entrepreneurial career.
Consequently, people entering
the labor market perceives full-time
employment as a more attractive path for the
future career rather than starting your own
companies [44]. Additional, the knowledge of
support from friends and family leads to higher
selfesteem and motivation to undergo an
entrepreneurial path [45].
H3: Subjective norms positively influences
students' intention to become an entrepreneur
3.4 Business environment (BE) and
subjective norms (SN)
The willingness to remain an entrepreneur
can also be explained by the influences of the
business environment, i.e. a specific ecosystem
supporting entrepreneurship. Isenberg defines
such an ecosystem as "a set of cooperating
institutions (...) in order to facilitate the
entrepreneur's transition through all stages of the
development process of a new venture”. This
can be understood as a network of services in
which the entrepreneur is the center of action
and a measure of success [46]. Researchers
emphasize that it is important to characterize the
local context (e.g. business environment
conducive to entrepreneurship, availability of
appropriate infrastructure, financial investors),
and more specifically mechanisms supporting
entrepreneurship [32]. These factors may have a
positive impact on the entrepreneur's
environment, which will be additionally
supported by the family and relatives who will
positively assess the entrepreneur's situation
before starting a business and may indirectly
influence the entrepreneur's intentions. In other
words, a good business climate conducive to
entrepreneurship will positively influence the
attitude of people who are in the immediate
vicinity of the entrepreneur (family and friends)
and will support the entrepreneur in his
activities.
H4: The business environment has a positive
effect on subjective norms
3.5 Public policy (PP) and perceived
control (PC)
Perceived behavioral control demonstrates a
person's belief that he or she is capable of
carrying out an action. It is influenced by the
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belief in one's own abilities, having certain
characteristics and the availability of the
necessary resources. The stronger the belief that
you are able to run and manage your own
business, the higher the level of entrepreneurial
intention [41]. Ultimately, however, only
adequate the compilation of these three factors
gives rise to an entrepreneurial intention.
Entrepreneurial activities can also be
explained by the influence of economic and
legal policy in a given country. New endeavors
however big or small are regulated by public or
private institutions. Such regulations can cause
a feeling of threat or opportunity for
entrepreneurs. Severe regulations and
procedures can cause a decline in
entrepreneurship intention of young individuals.
On the other side, encouraging conditions may
increase the aptitude for such entrepreneurial
activity [47].
The scientists emphasized that government
policy, supporting entrepreneurs through
various facilities, e.g. lowering taxes and
bureaucracy, have a positive impact on their
business activities. This influence will be
particularly important for the perception of the
control of his behavior by the entrepreneur, as
he will feel more confident in achieving his
goals when he is aware that the state can support
him through various programs, subsidies or a
stable economic situation. Therefore, the
following hypothesis was put forward:
H5: Public policy positively influences the
perceived control
3.6 Education (E) and entrepreneurial
attitude (A)
Another variable that appears in the
entrepreneurial intention model is
entrepreneurial education. It is understood as
any educational programs or processes that
shape entrepreneurial attitudes and skills [48].
Despite the earlier inclusion of
entrepreneurship-related issues in educational
programs, training in this subject has become a
common phenomenon only in recent years.
There are several types of entrepreneurial
education due to the stage of development and
previous experiences of its recipients.
Conducting entrepreneurial education is related
to the perceived entrepreneurial effectiveness of
a given person. This concept refers to the belief
that a person can successfully carry out
entrepreneurial tasks and perform the role of an
entrepreneur. Research shows that
entrepreneurial effectiveness obtained as a result
of the process of entrepreneurial education may
have a positive effect on the attitude and thus
increase the entrepreneurial intention [49,50].
Therefore, the following hypothesis was put
forward:
H6: Education (in area of entrepreneurship)
positively influences students' attitude
4 Methodology
In carrying out this work, a causal
quantitative methodology using structural
equations (Structural Equation Modelling,
SEM) using the Amos program was used. SEM
model has been chosen for its advantages in the
study of human behaviour, for its optimal
predictive potential [51]. Factor analysis has
also been used in a descriptive methodological
context.
4.1 Sample and data colections
The sample consisted of young students from
Poland, taking into account the suggestions of
other authors regarding the importance of higher
education in entrepreneurship and the need to
deepen studies in this segment of the population.
Many authors point out that university students
are a segment of interest in research on
entrepreneurship in general, and
entrepreneurship intention in particular [52].
The sample was deliberately selected from
among students of the Faculty of Management
Engineering who study in business-related fields
of study (management, production engineering,
tourism and recreation, logistics) because in this
context it is easier to approach and promote
entrepreneurship.
For the distribution of the questionnaire
among students, the days and hours were
selected randomly from among those with the
highest attendance of students in the classrooms,
so that the number of students in the sample of
each course was representative. The survey was
handed over to the students of the Faculty of
Management Engineering at the Bialystok
University of Technology personally by the
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author of the study at the turn of January and
February 2020.
Table 1 presents data on the sample of 332
respondents (161 men and 171 women).
Students attending the following programs (in
academic year 2019/2020) were involved in the
study: Management, Engineering and Service
Management, Logistics, Management and
Production Engineering, Tourism and
Recreation. The sample size meets the minimum
rule of 10 times the number of observed
variables (items) in quantitative research using a
questionnaire (there were a total of 25 observed
predictor items).
Table 1 Description of the sample
Gender
Number
of
students
%
Men
161
48,5%
Women
171
51,5%
Total
332
100%
Source: own research
4.2 Measures and instrument
To understand the factors influencing the
entrepreneurial intentions of university students,
the study used a quantitative method of data
collection and analysis. The questionnaire was
used to gather information, as is usually the case
in this type of research. The survey consists of
two parts; general questions (gender, field of
study, year of study) and a part of 35 five-point
Likert questions with 5 answer alternatives (1:
strongly disagree, to 5: strongly agree) related to
the items constructs of the model. The items
were taken from existing scales of previous
studies. After the initial test, the final
questionnaire contained 25 items. Elements
corresponding to intention and personal
variables were designed in accordance with the
comments of [53]. To design elements related to
contextual factors, the variables described in
publications [32,54] were suggested.
5 Results
The measurement model has been tested for
reliability and validity using Alfa Cronbach. As
can be seen in Table 2, Cronbach alpha for each
construct ranged between 0,64 and 0,79,
indicative good reliability among the indicators
of each construction.
Table 1 . Evaluation of the measurement
model
Alfa Cronbach
0,76
0,72
0,71
0,79
0,72
0,76
0,64
Source: own research
The fit indices for the model demonstrated
acceptable values and spoke in favor of adopting
the model (Table 3). The results revealed a χ2 of
747,2839 with a probability level of 0.00. As the
indicators show, the goodness-of-fit measures
are satisfactory: CFI=0.8054, RMSEA=0.739,
HOELTER (0.01)=143.
The analysis showed that not all constructs
classified as personal factors had a positive
impact on students' intentions to become
entrepreneurs. It can be concluded that 5
hypothesis of 6 have been confirmed positively
(Tab.3). There is no significant relationship
between SN and I.
Contextual features related to the broadly
understood entrepreneurship support ecosystem
affect the variables of the classic TPB construct
of entrepreneurship, initiating a chain of effects
that can reinforce attitudes, subjective norms,
and perceived control, leading to greater
intention for students to create a company.
Relations with greater weight (Tab. 3) occur
among the perceived control (PC) and
entrepreneurial intentions (H2: β = 0.783) and
between education (E) and entrepreneurial
attitude (H6: β = 0.308).
Table 2 Model of the impact of personal and
contextual factors on students'
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entrepreneurial intentions - model
parameters and fit indices
Hypothesis
Standardized
Regression
Weights
P
Hypotesis
status
H1: A -> I
,2718
,0000
Accepted
H2: PC->I
,7831
,0000
Accepted
H3: SN->I
,0078
0,885
Rejected
H4: BE->SN
,1711
,0000
Accepted
H5: P->PC
,1343
,0000
Accepted
H6: E->A
,3084
,0000
Accepted
Measures of fit of the structural model: Chi-square = 747,28
d=234 p=0.00 CMIN/DF=2.80 CFI =0.805 NFI=0.85
RMSEA=0.739 HOELTER.01=143
Source: own research
Figure 2 shows the results of the estimates
made with structural model. The arrows indicate
causal relationships, the number beside each is
the respective standardized coefficient.
The model has proven its capacity as a
conceptual framework because indicator R2
(coefficient of determination) is high (0,69) - it
explains 69% of the variance entrepreneurial
intention of students (I).
Figure 1 Structural model estimation
(***significant at ,0000 , ns-non-significant)
Source: own research
Perceived control (PC) is a construct that
contributes most towards explaining
entrepreneurial intention, in particular item
PC33: I would feel safe if I started a company
(0,7426) (Table 4). The other construct –
attitude (A) contributes less and and among its
variables, item A29 was of the greatest
importance (0,8249): I value entrepreneurship as
a value. Construct - Subjective norms (SN) is
not statistical significant.
In the case of contextual factors, their
positive influence on personal factors was
demonstrated. Education as a predictor of an
entrepreneurial attitude showed the strongest
relationship, especially in item E12: it is
necessary to study entrepreneurship in
universities (Table 4). Then, the statistical
significance of the influence of business
environment (BE) on subjective norms (SN) and
public policy (PP) on perceived control (PC)
was demonstrated.
Table 4 Construct, items and Standardized
Regression Weights
Construct
Item*
Standardized
Regression
Weights
A
Q24A
,5896
Q26A
,4765
Q27A
,7106
Q29A
,8249
PC
Q30PC
,5779
Q31PC
,6740
Q33PC
,7426
SN
Q25SN
,8577
Q23SN
,6707
Q18SN
,4062
I
Q35I
,7059
Q19I
,7485
Q16I
,7454
BE
Q15BE
,5421
Q13BE
,6214
Q11BE
,7700
Q10BE
,4429
Q8BE
,5349
PP
Q5PP
,6886
Q4PP
,7502
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Q2PP
,5712
Q1PP
,6667
E
Q14E
,5349
Q12E
,7692
Q3E
,5568
*detailed item names are included in appendix 1
Source: own research
6 Discussion
Understanding and being able to predict the
formulation of entrepreneurial intentions
becomes an important issue. Therefore, the
article presents a synthesis of research on the
determinants of the intention to start a business
among students. Several categories of these
determinants have been identified. Research
results show that individual characteristics
(personality, attitudes, beliefs, perceived control
of behavior) influence the process of creating
entrepreneurial intentions. However, research in
the context of polish students of a selected
university did not confirm the importance of
subjective norms as directly explaining
entrepreneurial intentions.
Taking into account the hypotheses put
forward in the previous fragments of the article,
there was only insufficient empirical evidence in
the study to establish a significant relationship
between SN and I (hypothesis 3), which
contrasts with the results of previous research in
the field of academic entrepreneurship [55, 15-
16], but it is in line with the results presented in
the more general work on TPB-based EI [9].
It can be concluded that 5 hypothesis of 6
have been confirmed positively (Tab.4). The
explanation for this result (that subjective norms
were no important to entrepreneurial intentions)
may be the lack of entrepreneurial culture in
context of region, where survey were conducted.
Podlasie province is a region in east part of
Poland that historically has not been
characterized by having a high rate of
entrepreneurial activity.
Contextual features related to the broadly
understood entrepreneurship support ecosystem
affect the variables of the classic TBM construct
of entrepreneurship, initiating a chain of effects
that can reinforce attitudes, subjective norms,
and perceived control, leading to greater
intention for students to create a company.
On the other hand, the strongest positive
relationships were observed for the influence of
the PC variable on intention (I) (H2: β = 0.783)
This is consistent with other research on
entrepreneurial intentions [15-16,41,55]. High
respondent ratings on the variable - Perceived
control suggest that students consider
themselves well-prepared to play the role of an
entrepreneur, which can be the merit of a good
education system in this area. It is also worth
noting that the relationship between education
and the entrepreneurial attitude is greater than in
the case of other relations.
7 Conclusions and implications
The results showed that polish students
entrepreneurial intentions to be explained by
perceived control, and this in turn to be mainly
influenced by public policy. As noted by [56] it
may be possible that awareness of external
support comes into play at later stages when
individuals are actually implementing
entrepreneurial actions. In order to carry out this
process better and to achieve success, they might
then start looking for external support.
The results have several implications for both
academia and for managers in the education
sector. First, this work contributes to the
literature one entrepreneurial intentions since
the study includes, in the academic context and
within the TPB models, individual factors and
contextual factors, demonstrating the special
importance of variable - Attitude and its
relationship with variable - E (education).
Second, the model suggests that intervention
by public authorities to improve students
intentions would have a indirect effect on their
EI (by increasing their perceived control). It
seems clear that a favourable entrepreneurial
attitude depends primarily on the students
personality. So, university managers must be
aware that the best way of promoting
entrepreneurial activity in their institutions is to
create the conditions necessary to increase the
entrepreneurial attitude of their students.
Moreover, entrepreneurship promotion
programmes run by universities must focus on
developing the attitude of the potential
entrepreneurs, conveying the message that,
despite all the obstacles that exist when
launching a business, the entrepreneurship route
can be an interesting alternative.
Despite the effort the author put into the design
of the present study, it is not without limitations.
Firstly, a common limitation of this type of
study is that deriving from the self-selection
bias. In particular, persons with a prior interest
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in self-employment are more likely to be
attracted to respond to such a survey. Secondly,
future research will need to analyze the passage
from intention (I) to the action of creating a new
business. While several studies such as this have
analyzed the antecedents of entrepreneurial
intention, fewer have considered the potential
barriers that might hinder subsequent
entrepreneurial actions. Also, an analysis of a
longitudinal nature of a sample would determine
whether intention (I) is eventually transformed
into action. A thirdly, a study focuses on the
intentions of students from the selected
university, not the entire country or, for
example, a geographic region. Data from
different countries could be collected to
compare intentions and behaviour students from
various cultural and economic backgrounds.
Additionally, there is no guarantee that students
will convert intention into actual behaviour.
Students who have shown a strong intention to
adopt an entrepreneurial career path may choose
to pursue it different direction. As suggested in
the literature [57, 58], for example, further
studies could be carried out on the same
students after a few years to see if they
changed their intention of behavior after
graduation.
This study contributes to the literature by
defining and identifying the importance of
individual and contextual factors influencing
entrepreneurial intentions among students. It
differs from other studies in the literature, as it
includes 3 groups of contextual variables
indirectly influencing EI and reinforcing
individual factors.
Acknowledgment
The publication is financed from the resources for
science of Ministry of Science and Higher Education
of the Republic of Poland under subsidies granted to
the Faculty of Engineering Management of the
Bialystok University of Technology.
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Appendix 1 Construct, items and statements
Source: own research
Construct
Item
Statement
A (attitude)
Q24A
I am a supporter of entrepreneurship
Q26A
Entrepreneurship has a positive impact on the social and economic development of the country
Q27A
Entrepreneurship is a value in itself
Q29A
I value entrepreneurship as a value
PC (Perceived
control)
Q30PC
I would be successful if I started a company
Q31PC
I would not be afraid to start a company
Q33PC
I would feel safe if I started a company
SN
(Subjective
norm)
Q25SN
My family would accept that I am an entrepreneur
Q23SN
My friends would accept the fact that I am an entrepreneur
Q18SN
I need to be internally motivated (e.g. a desire for a professional career, the need for continuous learning)
I (Intention)
Q35I
I already have sufficient motivation to start a business
Q19I
It is very likely that I will be an entrepreneur in the future
Q16I
I intend to create a company in the future
BE (Business
environment)
Q15BE
In order to create a company, the possibilities and assistance of the entrepreneurial environment are necessary
Q13BE
In order to create a company, it is necessary (e) the appropriate technological development of the country
Q11BE
In order to create a company, it is necessary to innovate and develop entrepreneurship in the country
Q10BE
A good supply / demand ratio is necessary to form a business
Q8BE
Government subsidies are required to form a business
PP (Public
Policy)
Q5PP
In order to create a company, it is necessary to have an appropriate tax policy of the state
Q4PP
A good economic situation in the country is necessary to create a company
Q2PP
A government policy that favors entrepreneurship is necessary to create a business
Q1PP
In order to set up a company, the country must be in a good financial position
E (Education)
Q14E
Additional entrepreneurship training after graduation is required to form a company
Q12E
In order to create a company, it is necessary to study entrepreneurship in universities
Q3E
To start a business, it is imperative that entrepreneurship is learned early in education
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