Effects of Methanol and N-hexane Extracts of Raphia vinifera Fruit and
Elaeis guineensis Seeds Against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia
coli
ODANGOWEI INETIMINEBI OGIDI*1, HENSHAW EMEMOBONG CARBOM2
AKPOFINIERE MONICA TAWARIOWEI2
1Department of Biochemistry,
Bayelsa Medical University
Yenagoa, Bayelsa State,
NIGERIA
2Department of Science Laboratory Technology,
Federal Polytechnic, Ekowe,
Bayelsa State,
NIGERIA
Abstract: - The aim of this study was to assess the impact of methanol and n-hexane extracts derived from the
mesocarp of Raphia vinifera fruit and Elaeis guineensis seeds on the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli bacteria. The antibacterial properties of methanol and n-hexane extracts of Raphia vinifera
fruit mesocarp and palm kernel seeds against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were evaluated using
the agar-well diffusion method. The average diameter of the areas where growth was inhibited by the n-hexane
extract of palm kernel seed and Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp was 15 mm and 9 mm, respectively, for S.
aureus. The diameter of the inhibition zone for Staphylococcus aureus was 11 mm for the Elaeis guineensis
seeds extract and 8 mm for the Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp extract for S. Aureus. The n-hexane extract of
Elaeis guineensis seeds and Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp showed inhibition zones with mean diameters of
15 mm and 12 mm, respectively, for Escherichia coli. Similarly, the methanol extract of Elaeis guineensis
seeds and Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp exhibited inhibition zones with mean diameters of 5 mm and 9 mm,
respectively, for Escherichia coli. Among the solvents utilised for extraction in this work, n-hexane
demonstrates the highest antibacterial efficacy compared to methanol extracts against all test species, including
S. aureus and E. coli. Thus, both Elaeis guineensis seeds and Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp have the
potential to serve as alternate antibacterial agents and significant reservoirs of medicinal compounds for
treating diverse illnesses.
Key-Words: - Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Raphia vinifera, Elaeis guineensis seeds,
Methanol, N-hexane
Received: June 29, 2022. Revised: September 11, 2023. Accepted: October 16, 2023. Published: November 14, 2023.
1 Introduction
Microbial resistance to antibiotics has been
observed mostly in certain developing nations.
Enhancing our understanding of the medicinal
properties of plants could provide valuable
scientific and medical knowledge for building a
strategic and successful approach to combating
drug-resistant bacteria. Plants are a highly
abundant source of medications used in
traditional medicine, modern medicine,
nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk
medicine, pharmaceutical intermediates, and
chemical compounds for synthetic drugs [1].
İD
International Journal of Applied Sciences & Development
DOI: 10.37394/232029.2023.2.19
Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi,
Henshaw Ememobong Carbom,
Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei
E-ISSN: 2945-0454
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The utilization of plants and botanical
substances for therapeutic purposes can be
traced back to the inception of human
civilization. Medicinal plants possess
significant economic significance globally. We
have been endowed with a bountiful botanical
abundance by nature, consisting of a wide array
of plant species that thrive in various regions of
our country [2].
The therapeutic properties of certain plants are
attributed to the presence of certain bioactive
compounds found in different sections of these
plants and their extracts. The active compounds
referred to as phytochemicals have the ability to
have unique physiological effects on target
organisms [3, 4]. Plants synthesize a wide array
of phytochemical compounds, which are
secondary metabolites [5]. These secondary
metabolites have distinct mechanisms of action
and are utilized either directly or indirectly in
the pharmaceutical business [6].
The advent of antibiotics led to a substantial
decrease in the incidence of illness and death
caused by infections. However, the improper
use and mishandling of these antibiotics by
patients has given rise to a more serious issue:
the growth of drug-resistant organisms.
Currently, this issue is causing significant
apprehension in the field of medical practice
and has introduced a fresh perspective to the
challenge of treating infections. This issue is
further exacerbated in underdeveloped nations
where the regulation of antibiotic sales is
inadequate [7].
Regrettably, the exponential growth of the
human population has rendered contemporary
health facilities incapable of adequately meeting
global health needs. Consequently, there is an
increased reliance on the use of natural herbal
health therapies. The current challenges related
to the use of antibiotics include the rise in the
number of pathogenic bacteria strains that are
resistant to multiple drugs, such as methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Helicobacter
pylori, and MDR Klebsiela pneumoniae. This
has led to a renewed interest in plants that have
antimicrobial properties [8, 9].
The presence of antimicrobial resistance in
pathogens might lead to higher expenses and
more problems with procedures and treatments
[10]. As stated by Sani et al. [11], the
development of resistance in microorganisms to
antibiotics that were previously effective can be
attributed to the acquisition of resistant genes
from other species or strains within the same
culture. According to Emine et al. [12],
overcrowding and subpar infection control
procedures in hospitals facilitate the spread of
this resistance. Aisha et al. [13] found that there
is an increasing prevalence of bacterial isolates
in Nigeria that exhibit widespread resistance to
β-lactam antibiotics and flouroquinolones.
The evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is
often attributed to poor antimicrobial treatment,
which refers to the ineffective treatment of
infection. Contributing factors to insufficient
antimicrobial treatment in hospital patients with
infections include pre-hospital antibiotic usage,
prolonged antibiotic exposure, the exorbitant
cost of highly effective antibiotics, improper
utilization of broad-spectrum antibiotics, and
the use of invasive medical devices [12].
Various plants have been utilized for medicinal
purposes in the management and treatment of
multiple illnesses. Raphia vinifera is an
exemplar of such botanical specimens. Raphia
vinifera, commonly known as bamboo palm, is
a plant with medicinal and nutritional
properties. It is found in large quantities in
swamps and other moist areas along the creeks
of the Niger Delta and other deltaic states in
Nigeria. It is also distributed from Benin to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo [14]. The
palm tree is a solitary, hapazanthic plant with a
thick, unbranched stem that reaches a height of
5 meters. It belongs to the family "Arecaceae"
[15].
Evidence has shown that many components of
the Raphia vinifera plant possess therapeutic
qualities. Specifically, the root of the plant is
prepared and used as a remedy for toothache.
The fibers extracted from the leaf sheath
possess properties that can alleviate digestive
issues, while the fermented fluid derived from
International Journal of Applied Sciences & Development
DOI: 10.37394/232029.2023.2.19
Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi,
Henshaw Ememobong Carbom,
Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei
E-ISSN: 2945-0454
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Volume 2, 2023
the inflorescence acts as a natural laxative. The
fruit pulp is used as a remedy for dysentery,
while an infusion of the fruit effectively stops
hemorrhaging. In West Cameroon, the apical
bud of R. vinifera is brewed to create a
medicinal liquid for treating gonorrhoea and
other illnesses of the genital and urinary
systems. Additionally, the leaf of this plant is
employed to counteract the effects of poison
and combat numerous sexually transmitted
diseases [16]. The oily mesocarp of the fruit is
consumed and can be subjected to fermentation
to produce a potent beverage for ceremonial
purposes or to enhance sexual prowess in
accordance with traditional medicine [16].
The African oil palm, scientifically known as
Elaeis guineensis Jacquin, yields two distinct
types of oil: palm oil and palm kernel oil [17].
The pericarp is composed of three distinct
layers: the exocarp, which is the outermost skin;
the mesocarp, which is the outer pulp that
contains palm oil; and the endocarp, which is a
hard shell that encloses the kernel or
endosperm. The kernel, or endosperm, contains
oil, known as kernel oil. [18]. This study sought
to assess the impacts of methanol and n-hexane
extracts derived from the mesocarp of Raphia
vinifera fruit and Elaeis guineensis seeds on
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
2 Materials and Methods
Collection of Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp
and Elaeis guineensis seed Samples
The fruit mesocarp of Raphia vinifera and the
seeds of the Elaeis guineensis seeds were
acquired from Ekowe market in Southern Ijaw
Local Government Area, Bayelsa State. The
specimens were desiccated for a duration of
three days under the sun and then pulverized
using a grinder machine. The resulting powder
was then stored in an airtight container for
laboratory analysis.
Methods
Plant Sample Extraction
The solvents used for extraction were n-hexane
and methanol. A beaker containing
approximately 10 grams of the Raphia
vinifera fruit mesocarp and Elaeis guineensis
seed samples was filled with 25 milliliters of n-
hexane and thoroughly mixed using vortexing.
The mixture was thereafter subjected to
centrifugation at a speed of 3000 revolutions
per minute for a duration of 10 minutes. The
liquid portion, known as the supernatant, was
obtained and moved to a sealed test tube using
the process of filtration. The supernatant
obtained was dried using a moderate nitrogen
stream and then reconstituted in 10 ml of
dimethyl sulfoxide. The mixture was well
mixed by vortexing. The identical method was
replicated with the methanol solvent [19].
Preparation of Dried Filter Paper Discs
Discs were prepared using Whatman filter
paper no. 102. A perforator was used to create a
hole with a diameter of approximately 5 mm.
These were inserted in a petri plate after
sterilization in an autoclave.
Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp and Elaeis
guineensis seeds Extract Disc Placement
A plant disc with a concentration of 3 ml (3 µl),
along with Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp and
palm kernel seeds, was prepared using filter
paper. The prepared disc was then carefully
placed on the plates using sterile forceps. A
single aseptic antibiotic disc was carefully
positioned onto the agar plate surface using a
forceps. The forceps were sterilized by
submerging them in alcohol before being placed
on another antibiotic disc. The disc was
thereafter delicately compressed using forceps
to establish full contact with the agar surface
and positioned at a distance from the plate's
edge for convenient measurement. After
positioning all the discs, the plates were turned
upside down and placed in a 37°C incubator for
a duration of 24 hours.
International Journal of Applied Sciences & Development
DOI: 10.37394/232029.2023.2.19
Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi,
Henshaw Ememobong Carbom,
Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei
E-ISSN: 2945-0454
179
Volume 2, 2023
Culture Media Preparation
The media utilized were produced in
accordance with the instructions provided by
the manufacturer. 3.4 grams of nutritional agar
were weighed to produce a 500-gram pack for
three plates. A volume of one milliliter of a
water sample was applied to the solid nutrient
agar surface and then evenly distributed around
the medium using a glass spreader. Following
the spread plate procedure, the culture was
subsequently incubated in an inverted
orientation in the incubator for 24 hours at a
temperature of 37 oC.
Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMB): A 500-
gram pack of EMB was prepared by weighing
4.3 g for 3 plates. A water sample was
introduced or inoculated onto the medium, and
the plates were incubated in an inverted position
at 37 oC for 48 hours. The isolates were then
subcultured in buffered peptone water and
incubated at 37 oC for 24 hours to ensure that
they were in their exponential growth phase.
The isolated specimen obtained from the wide
was introduced onto a solid nutritional agar
medium and evenly distributed using the spread
plate technique. The antimicrobial susceptibility
test was conducted by placing the disc on the
plate. The plates were subjected to a 24-hour
incubation period at a temperature of 37 oC in
order to observe the response of the plants to
the antibiotic disc [20].
Gram Staining Method
Approximately 5 drops of crystal violet dye
were applied to the fixed culture and allowed to
sit for 60 seconds. The stain was decanted, and
the surplus stain was delicately washed away
using a steady flow of water. Approximately 5
drops of the iodine solution were applied to the
smear, ensuring that the fixed culture was fully
covered. The solution was left undisturbed for
30 seconds. The iodine solution was decanted,
and the slides were rinsed with flowing water,
removing any excess water by shaking them off
the surface. A small amount of decolorizer was
added to facilitate the downward flow of the
solution on the slide. After a duration of 5
seconds, the substance was washed away using
water, and the process was halted after the
solvent ceased to exhibit any coloration while
passing over the slide. The specimen was
stained with 5 drops of safranin solution and
left for 20 seconds. The safranin solution was
rinsed with water and then blotted with bibulous
paper to eliminate any residual water.
Subsequently, the slide was scrutinized using a
microscope [21].
3 Results
Antibacterial Susceptibility
The susceptibility of the extracts from Raphia
vinifera fruit mesocarp and palm kernel seeds,
which have different levels of antibacterial
activity against Gram-positive species
(Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative
species (Escherichia coli), was tested using
methanol and n-hexane extracts. The results are
presented in Tables 1 and 2 below. Table 3
displays the biochemical traits of the test
organisms, specifically S. aureus and E. coli.
Table 1: Antibacterial activity of Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp and Elaeis guineensis seeds in
against Staphylococcus aureus
S/N
Extraction
solvent
MIC
Susceptibility
in zone of
Interpretation
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inhibition
1
n-hexane
0.5ml
15mm
Sensitive
2
Methanol
0.5ml
11mm
Sensitive
3
n- hexane
0.5ml
9mm
Sensitive
4
Methanol
0.5ml
8mm
Sensitive
Data are given as mean of the diameter of zone of inhibition (mm) of triplicate determination
Table 2: Antibacterial activity of Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp and Elaeis guineensis seeds in
against Escherichia coli
S/N
Plant Samples
Extraction
solvent
MIC
Susceptibility
in zone of
inhibition
Interpretation
1
Elaeis guineensis
seeds
n-hexane
0.5ml
15mm
Sensitive
2
Elaeis guineensis
seeds
Methanol
0.5ml
5mm
Sensitive
3
Raphia vinifera fruit
n- hexane
0.5ml
12mm
Sensitive
4
Raphia vinifera fruit
Methanol
0.5ml
9mm
Sensitive
Data are given as mean of the diameter of zone of inhibition (mm) of triplicate determination
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Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei
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Table 3: Biochemical Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
Microorganism
Escherichia coli
Staphylococcus aureus
Cell
morphology
Rod
Coccus
Colony shape
Spindle
Circular
Gram staining
reaction
Positive
Negative
Biochemical
test
Oxidase
Negative
Negative
Catalase
Positive
Positive
Methyl red
Positive
Positive
V.P
Negative
Positive
Indole
Positive
Negative
Citrate
Negative
Positive
Urease
Negative
Positive
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Figure 4.1: Comparison of Staphylococcus aureus susceptibility efficacy of the solvents of
extraction
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Figure 2: Comparison of Escherichia coli susceptibility efficacy of the solvents of extraction
Plate 1: Antibacterial activities of methanol and n-hexane extracts of Stapholococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli
4 Discussion
Recently, there has been a growing quest for
novel antimicrobial agents in response to their
limited efficacy, adverse effects, and potential
medication interactions with patients.
Additionally, the antibacterial and antifungal
agents used appear to be resistant to infections,
as the lesion keeps recurring. Consequently, this
finding has spurred the quest for novel
antimicrobial agents derived from natural
substances. The susceptibility of extracts from
Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp and palm kernel
seeds, with different levels of antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus (a Gram-
positive species) and Escherichia coli (a Gram-
negative species), was tested using methanol and
n-hexane extracts. The results are presented in
Tables 1 and 2.
The average diameter of the zones of inhibition
caused by the n-hexane extract of palm kernel
seed and Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp was 15
mm and 9 mm, respectively, for S. aureus. The
diameter of inhibition zones for S. aureus was
11 mm and 8 mm for the methanol extract of
Elaeis guineensis seed and Raphia vinifera fruit
mesocarp, respectively. The n-hexane extract of
palm kernel seed and Raphia vinifera fruit
mesocarp exhibited inhibition zones with mean
diameters of 15 mm and 12 mm, respectively,
against Escherichia coli. Similarly, the methanol
extract of Elaeis guineensis seeds and Raphia
vinifera fruit mesocarp showed inhibition zones
with mean diameters of 5 mm and 9 mm,
respectively, against Escherichia coli. This
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finding is consistent with studies by Ekwenye
and Ijeomah [17] and Ugbogu and Akukwe [22].
Among the solvents utilized for extraction in this
study, n-hexane exhibited the highest
antibacterial activity compared to methanol
extracts against all test organisms (S. aureus and
E. coli), as depicted in Figures 1 and 2. This
finding contradicts the earlier findings of Aarti
and Astha [23], Ogidi et al. [24, 25], Madhavi et
al. [26], and Ogidi et al. [27], who discovered
that the methanol extract exhibited greater
sensitivity against bacteria and fungi compared
to other extracts.
5 Conclusion
The antibacterial findings from this investigation
indicate that the n-hexane and methanol extracts
of the palm kernel seed and Raphia vinifera fruit
mesocarp have the potential to be utilized in the
creation of more effective and powerful
antibacterial agents. Nevertheless, the n-hexane
extract derived from both palm kernel seed and
Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp exhibited greater
efficacy in terms of broad-spectrum antibacterial
activity against S. aureus and E. coli. This
finding provides further support for the potential
therapeutic application of palm kernel seed and
Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp in traditional
medicine.
Additional, for further study, in
vivo investigations are necessary to determine
the impact of palm kernel seed and Raphia
vinifera fruit mesocarp extracts on skin and soft
tissue infections, namely abscesses, furuncles,
and cellulitis. This study would have a
significant influence on the prospective
treatment of these diseases and other associated
conditions. Conservation of the species Raphia
vinifera and Elaeis guineensis trees is necessary.
The majority of the colossal foliage species have
nearly disappeared from numerous environments
where they were once abundant. Encouraging
the consumption of Elaeis guineensis seeds and
Raphia vinifera fruit mesocarp is recommended
due to their potent antibacterial properties.
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Contribution of Individual Authors to the
Creation of a Scientific Article (Ghostwriting
Policy)
Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi: was responsible for
the conceptualization, validation, writing - original
draft and actively participated in all the publication
stages of this manuscript.
Henshaw Ememobong Carbom: was responsible for
laboratory work, reviewing, and editing the
manuscript and actively participated in all the
publication stages of this manuscript.
Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei: was
responsible for reviewing and editing the
manuscript and actively participated in all the
publication stages of this manuscript.
Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare
that are relevant to the content of this article.
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
_US
International Journal of Applied Sciences & Development
DOI: 10.37394/232029.2023.2.19
Odangowei Inetiminebi Ogidi,
Henshaw Ememobong Carbom,
Akpofiniere Monica Tawariowei
E-ISSN: 2945-0454
187
Volume 2, 2023