Intelligent Energy

Metering in the Smart Grid: A Review

W. FALL1, M. BADIANE1, P. A. A. HONADIA², F.I BARRO1

1 Department of Physics,

Faculty of Science and Technology,

Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar,

Dakar,

SENEGAL

2Renewable Thermal Energy Laboratory,

Kaya University Centre,

Ouagadougou,

BURKINA FASO

1 Introduction

Rising consumption and fluctuating trends in demand

and supply are problems currently facing the energy

sector worldwide. The demand for electricity is

increasing day by day due to population growth and

industrial development [1]. According to a 2019

United Nations report, the world's population rose

from around 2.53 billion in 1950 to over 7.79 billion

in 2020, equivalent to an increase of around 207.9%.

According to another complementary report, the

world's populationgrew by around 55% between

2018 and 2020 [2]. This demographic growth is set to

continue, with a projection of over 10.9 billion by

2100, an increase of 40% [3]. Given this increase,

current primary energy resources are expected to run

out within 133 years [3]. Thus, the increased daily use

of electrical appliances and the integration of new

crypto-currency charges by consumers is a growing

concern in the energy sector, creating an imbalance

in the relationship between supply and demand. In

addition, there are many unauthorized "grid

Abstract: -The implementation of smart metering infrastructure may be a possible solution to reduce electricity

demand, manage electricity supply efficiently. This article reviews the ways in which smart metering

infrastructure can overcome the various problems of the smart grid. It provides a better understanding of the

technical challenges, economic opportunities and environmental implications associated with smart grids. As

such, it helps to identify gaps in current research and areas requiring future investigation, thus helping to steer

research and development efforts towards more efficient and innovative solutions. It highlights the latest

advances and emerging trends, while providing an overview of current technologies and methods such as smart

meters, data concentrators, the data management system and the communication system. We also examine

standards for smart metering, substation automation, demand response, distributed resources, and large-scale

control and monitoring, to ensure interoperability, security and reliability of energy management systems.

Key-words: Smart metering infrastructure, smart grid, smart meter, concentrators, standards,

interoperability, security.

Received: May 27, 2024. Revised: June 24, 2024. Accepted: August 17, 2024. Published: September 26, 2024.

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connections", which means that a significant amount

of energy is not metered or paid for [4]. Producing

more electricity would improve the situation, but

would not be a complete solution. There are

opportunities to reduce the gap between supply and

demand through better use of electricity. The advent

of smart meters and advanced metering systems has

solved many of these problems. The European

Parliament in the Directive of 2012/27/EU, defines

smart meters or smart metering systems as "an

electronic system capable of measuring energy

consumption, providing more information than a

conventional meter, and transmitting and receiving

information using a form of electronic

communication" [5].

These are powerful metering devices with digital

displays, the ability to record the amount of energy

consumed, its date of consumption, automatic

transmission of information and a Meter Data

Management System (MDMS) for processing and

storage [6] [7]. With interoperability between smart

meters and SGDC systems in mind, standards for data

collection and storage must be respected. In this

article we discuss smart meters, the Advanced

Metering Infrastructure (AMI) and the data flow of

smart meters currently deployed worldwide in smart

grids in compliance with standards. Many scientific

studies have been carried out in this field by various

researchers. In [8], CRAEMER and all present an

overview of smart grid architecture and an analysis

of existing smart grid-related ICT standards. They

emphasize the need for interoperable, future-proof

solutions, particularly in the context of the imminent

deployment of smart meters in European countries.

The article focuses on communication standards such

as DLMS/COSEM and their applications in smart

meter data exchange. In [9], Ansari gives a

comprehensive overview of smart meter networking,

including the key elements and technologies

involved. He emphasizes the importance of

transforming the power grid into a smart grid and

modernizing it with advanced metering infrastructure

to meet today's energy challenges. [10] examines an

overview of the key elements of a smart metering

system, including architecture, trends and

applications. It highlights the importance of two-way

communication, advanced tariff systems and remote

control of the energy supply. The author also

discusses the various technologies and standards used

in smart metering systems, such as wireless networks

and data collection devices. This review article will

highlight the latest advances and emerging trends,

while providing an overview of current smart energy

metering technologies and methods. By synthesizing

a wide range of recent work and developments, this

review provides a better understanding of the

technical challenges, economic opportunities and

environmental implications associated with smart

grids. In addition, it helps to identify gaps in current

research and areas requiring future investigation, thus

helping to direct research and development efforts

towards more effective and innovative solutions.

2 Evolution of the Smart Metering

System

The first attempts to automate energy metering date

back to the early 20th century. Prior to this period,

metering was mainly manual, with technicians taking

regular readings from conventional electricity

meters. However, with the advancement of

technology and the growing need for efficient

management of power grids, initiatives to automate

energy metering have been developed. Milestones in

the history of energy metering automation, or

automated meter reading (AMR), have enabled

utilities to remotely read consumption records [11].

AMR is often limited to a one-way function, where

data is transmitted from the meter to a central point

for billing. Over time, AMR evolves and integrates

additional functionalities, hence ARM Plus. Unlike

AMR Plus [12], the latter can take on bidirectional

communications; i.e. in addition to collecting data, it

can receive instructions from the central point or

updates. It also enables more dynamic interaction

between the meter and the management system [13-

14]. As for the

Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) [15], it

presents a more advanced and comprehensive

approach to meter management. This is an advanced

metering infrastructure integrating smart meters with

two-way communications systems, network

management functions and advanced network

applications [16]. Load profiling, prepayment,

remote disconnection and reconnection, notification

of power cuts, tamper detection and multiple pricing

are also possible with smart meters. These used in an

AMI system offer real-time data collection, bi-

directional communications capabilities, advanced

network management functions and further

integration into the smart grid [17].

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Table 1, Requirements for the design of an advanced

metering system.

ASPECTS

EXPRESSIONS OF

NEED

Technologies

Choosing the right

technology Software

robustness

Physic

Resilience

Robustness

Communic

ation

Wired, Wireless or Hybrid

Two-way

Range

Bandwidth

Signal quality

Data security and privacy

Cost

Cost of

components

cost of

communication

infrastructure

After-sales service (SAV)

Consumers

Access to personal data

Power management

Vendors

Data access

Control and monitoring

Predicting energy demand

2.1 Smart Meter

The evolution of energy meters has gone through

several phases over time, from traditional

mechanical meters to more advanced electronic

meters, to smart meters integrating communications

and data management technologies [18]. Smart

meters are powerful tools that fundamentally change

the way the electricity grid operates. In addition to

the functions of conventional meters, smart meters

can be seen as sensors throughout the power grid

[19]. It measures energy consumption in detail and

possibly in real time [20]. The introduction of smart

meters has been encouraged as part of initiatives to

modernize electricity grids and promote more

sustainable, efficient energy use. These meters can

be used as advanced sensors to collect and transmit

data in real time, helping to optimize power grid

management. In fact, meters have two functions:

measurement and communication; consequently,

every meter contains two subsystems: metrology and

communication [21]. There are essential

functionalities that meters should have, regardless of

the type or quantity of their measurement, including:

 Measurement: The meter must be able to

 accurately measure the amount of energy based

on various physical characteristics. Power

management: The smart meter enables modern

energy management by allowing efficient real-time

monitoring.

 Calibration: Although it varies according to type,

the meter must have the ability to compensate for

system variations. It is important to follow the

procedures recommended by the meter manufacturer

and to comply with local and national regulations on

energy meter calibration.

 Display: The customer should have detailed

information on the meter display. This display is

needed to show energy consumption (in kWh) in real

time, the current cost of energy consumed based on

the current electricity tariff, consumption history (e.g.

for the previous day or week), alerts and

notifications, power quality information such as

voltage, frequency, current to inform the user about

the stability of the electricity network.

 Synchronization: Synchronization of a smart

meter refers to the coordination of the meter's internal

clock with an accurate time source, such as a time

server, to ensure the accuracy of the timestamps of

the data recorded by the meter. This enables utility

providers and power system operators to make

informed decisions based on temporally accurate and

reliable data.

 Two-way communication: Smart meters are

generally equipped with two-way communication

capabilities. This means they can not only send data

to electricity suppliers, but also receive instructions

or updates from the network, facilitating dynamic

network management [22-23].

 Fault detection and resolution: smart meters can

detect network anomalies such as power outages or

equipment failures. This information can be rapidly

transmitted to network operators, enabling faster

response and more effective resolution [24-25].

 Integration of renewable energies (RE):

introducing RE into the smart grid is crucial; smart

meters can help monitor and manage energy

production from RE sources such as solar and wind

power [26]. In short, the smart meter plays a crucial

role in the smart grid infrastructure, communicating

with a central point called the data concentrator.

2.2 Data concentrator

A data concentrator in the smart grid is an essential

element of the grid management and control

infrastructure. It is a central point where data from

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meters and distribution sensors is collected,

aggregated and analyzed [27]. It provides a

centralized platform for:

 Data collection: The data concentrator gathers all

the data from the smart grid's various equipment and

devices.

 Data aggregation: once collected, data is

aggregated to provide a complete overview of the

network, giving operators a global view of the

situation.

 Data analysis: Aggregated data is analyzed to

detect anomalies, trends and patterns, facilitating

decision-making to optimize network performance,

improve energy efficiency and anticipate potential

problems.

 Communication: The data concentrator

facilitates two-way communication between the

various network elements, enabling efficient

coordination and control of network transactions

[28].

2.3 Data management system This system is a

software platform designed to process, store and

analyze data from concentrators or smart meters, as

well as end-user application databases. These

systems are essential for utilities and energy suppliers

to manage power grids efficiently and provide

customers with optimized services. In such a system,

data must be stored securely and scalably [29]. This

task requires robust, scalable databases with high

availability mechanisms and data integrity. Given the

sensitivity of data, such as customer consumption

data, security is paramount. Systems must implement

mechanisms to protect data against unauthorized

access, tampering and leakage. This data is used in

other systems, such as billing systems and demand

management systems [30].

2.4 Communication system

Standard two-way communication is an essential

element of the Advanced Metering Infrastructure

(AMI). Given the large number of meters installed,

the communication network must enable various

network elements to communicate with each other to

collect data, monitor and control equipment, and

respond to energy demand management in an

efficient manner [31]. There are several

communication topologies for smart grids. The most

widespread architecture is that which collects data

from groups of meters and transmits them to

concentrators. This communication architecture

involves smart meters measuring energy

consumption and transmitting this data to

concentrators via local networks. The concentrators

aggregate and pre-process this data before sending it

to the centralized control center via medium- or long-

range networks. The centralized control center

analyzes the data received to optimize management

of the energy network and send commands to

concentrators and meters where necessary.

These concentrators act as local collection points,

aggregating data from meters located in the same

geographical area. The data aggregated at

concentrator level will be transmitted to the central

server via a large-scale communications network. In

fact, there are several communication media or

technologies available for implementing this system:

power line communication (PLC), broadband over

power lines (BPL), Lora, WiMax, cellular networks

such as 4G LTE, GSM/GPRS, Bluetooth,

Zigbee, Peer to Peer (P2P) and others [32]. By

combining these technologies, smart networks can

benefit from diversified solutions that meet different

needs in terms of coverage, bandwidth, energy

consumption, cost, etc.

2.4.1 Power Line Communication Using power

lines, PLC enables communication between electrical

network equipment such as meters, control devices

and sensors to transmit data to the AMI.

Communications take place between devices such as

home electronics, meters, hubs and the central server.

This technology is advantageous because it uses the

infrastructure [33]. Although PLC communication

offers several advantages in Smart Grids, it also has

certain limitations, such as sensitivity to

electromagnetic interfaces, signal attenuation, data

loss and limited bandwidth [34]. These challenges are

related to household appliances, the poor quality of

certain cables and external sources.

 (2G/3G/4G/5G): provide wireless connectivity for

remote devices. It offers extensive coverage and

sufficient bandwidth for high-speed applications. It

also enables the transmission of safety-critical data

such as emergency alerts, fault notifications and

extreme metrological information [35]. Newer

cellular networks, notably 4G and 5G, offer shorter

latency times, which is crucial for Smart Grid

applications requiring rapid response, such as real-

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time network monitoring [36]. Although 4G and 5G

networks offer higher data rates than their

predecessors, they can still encounter bandwidth

limitations when supporting large numbers of devices

and data in Smart Grid networks [37].

 GSM (Global system for mobile): The use of

GSM provides a wireless communication method for

data transmission between meters and the control

centers of service providers [38]. Smart meters

equipped with GSM modules can transmit electricity

consumption readings to utility providers at regular

intervals [39]. They can also receive remote control

commands via sms or voice calls. However, GSM

generally has lower data rates than GPRS (General

Packet Radio Service), which may limit its ability to

transmit large volume of data or support advanced

applications [40].

 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): GPRS is

a wireless technology that extends the functionality

of GSM, enabling packet data transfer and providing

Internet connectivity for mobile devices and remote

equipment [41]. In the context of smart grids, GPRS

is often used to establish two-way communication

between meters and energy management systems

[42]. Meters equipped with a GPRS module can

regularly transmit energy consumption readings to

utility providers, enabling efficient management of

electricity demand [43]. This module enables utilities

to receive real-time data on the status of the power

network, facilitating fault detection, load

management and network optimization [44-45].

2.4.3 LoRa (Long Range)

This technology uses long-range radio frequencies to

cover vast areas with little infrastructure. With low-

energy technology, it is used to connect IoT devices

at low data rates, even in rural or remote areas.

Enabling reliable connectivity even in rural or remote

areas [46]. This enables Smart Grid devices, such as

smart meters and network sensors, to stay connected

even over long distances [47]. LoRa technology is

economical to deploy and operate, making it an

attractive option for largescale Smart Grid

deployments [48]. Hardware and infrastructure costs

are generally lower than other wireless

communication technologies. LoRa is able to

penetrate physical obstacles such as buildings, walls

and natural barriers, improving communication

reliability in complex environments [49].

Nevertheless, while this technology offers many

advantages for Smart Grid applications, it has some

potential limitations in terms of limited data

throughput, latency, radio interference, capacity

limitations, the need for dedicated infrastructure,

network management complexity and technological

evolution [50].

2.4.4 The IEEE.16 Group

The IEEE.16 group, commonly known as WiMax, is

a wireless technology for metropolitan area networks

that was initially presented as an alternative to other

communication technologies such as WiFi and 4G

[51]. In particular, IEEE.16g aims to provide specific

requirements for wireless communication systems

for smart grids. It covers aspects such as quality of

service (QoS), security, spectrum management and

support for remote control applications in the energy

domain [52]. IEEE.16s can also be used in the context

of smart grids to provide high-speed connectivity to

fixed devices such as smart meters and power grid

monitoring devices [53]. These standards thus

facilitate applications such as smart meter remote

reading, real-time power grid monitoring, load

management, renewable energy coordination and

other functions critical to power grid modernization.

However, this standard has certain limitations that

may diminish its effectiveness in the specific context

of the smart grid [54]. For example, the deployment

of a WiMax network may require significant

investment in infrastructure, including the

installation of transmission antennas and base

stations [55].

2.5 Standards and Protocols

Several standards are used in smart grid design to

guarantee the interoperability, safety and reliability of

energy management systems [56]. The majority of

previous articles focus on the crucial standards and

protocols of a specific domain [57]. On the other

hand, there are a limited number of publications

providing a comprehensive study encompassing all

aspects of the smart grid, e.g. smart metering,

substation automation, demand response,

cybersecurity, electric vehicles, distributed resources,

wide-area control and monitoring.

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2.5.1 Metering

 ANSI C12 is a series of standards developed

by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

for the measurement of electricity [58]. The ANSI

C12 series: ANSI C12.18, 12.19, 12.20, 12.21, 12.22,

12.27 defines the protocol for metering applications,

specifies requirements and guidelines for electricity

meters and other metering devices used in the

electricity network [59].

 The Meter-Bus standard: Initially developed in

Germany in the 1990s [60], M-Bus is now a

European standard (EN 13757) and an international

standard (ISO/IEC 61107). It is widely used for

remote meter reading in utilities such as electricity

and gas [61]. This standard is a robust and reliable

communication protocol widely used in the field of

energy measurement and management, offering an

efficient solution for the remote reading and control

of meters and associated devices such as actuators

and sensors.

2.5.2 Substations

In power grid substations, several standards and

protocols are used to enable efficient and secure

electricity management. As an example, here are

some of the key standards and protocols at smart grid

substation levels [62].

 IEC 16850: This international standard defines

communication protocols for the automation of

electrical substations [63]. It specifies network and

system communication in substations with the aim

ofproviding interoperability between intelligent

electronic devices (IEDs), enabling them to perform

protection, monitoring, control and automation

functions in substations [64].

 DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol): is a

communication protocol widely used in substations.

It enables real-time monitoring and remote control of

equipment, as well as data analysis and diagnostics.

As an open communication protocol, DNP3 is

generally used in SCADA systems to specify

communication protocols between different

components, i.e. between a SCADA master station

and RTUs (Remote Terminal Units) [65-66].

 C37.1: C37.1 is a standard developed by the

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE) that establishes standardized definitions and

terms for electrical equipment used in power systems.

It also covers network performance requirements

related to reliability, maintainability, availability,

safety, scalability and variability [67].

 Modbus: is an open serial communication

system, a protocol often used in various applications,

such as industrial/building automation, energy

management, substation automation, etc. The

Modbus protocol plays an essential role in the

implementation and operation of smart grids,

enabling communication between the various

network components and facilitating the monitoring,

Fig.1, Smartgrid standards and protocols

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control and optimization of the entire electrical

system [68].

 IEEE 1646, entitled "IEEE Standard for

switching shunt power capacitors," is a standard

issued by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE) that provides recommendations

and guidelines for switching parallel (shunt) power

capacitors in electrical systems. It defines

communication delays as the time spent in the

network between applications running on two end

systems, including processing and transmission

delays [69].

2.5.3 Demand responses (DR) Demand response

standards and protocols are essential to ensure the

efficiency, reliability and safety of the power grid.

 OpenADR (Automated Demand Response)

is a communication protocol providing a

standardized information model in the field of

demand response. The protocol is based on Web

services, Web Service Definition Language (WSDL),

SOAP and XML [70].

 DRBizNet is an IT platform developed by the

Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Korea to

facilitate the management and implementation of

demand response programs in the energy sector [71].

It is a highly flexible, reliable and scalable platform

for supporting DR applications. DRBizNet has a

service-oriented architecture and provides a

standardized Web services interface. It enables

automatic notifications to customers, aggregators and

distribution/grid operators, and triggers all types of

intelligent load control devices [72].

2.5.4 Distributed generation

 IEEE 1547: This standard establishes the basic

requirements for the connection and operation of

distributed generation (DG) systems to the electrical

grid. It covers aspects such as protection,

synchronization, voltage control, etc. It addresses the

physical and electrical interconnection and

interoperability of distributed energy resources with

electrical power systems, providing requirements for

performance, operation, testing and safety [73].

 IEC 61400 is a series of international standards

drawn up by the International Electrotechnical

Commission (IEC), dealing with aspects of the

design, manufacture, operation and maintenance of

energy systems, particularly wind turbines [74].

In terms of cybersecurity for smart grids and power

transmission systems, several standards and

protocols such as IEC 62351, NERC CIP, NIST SP

800-82, NISTIR-7628, C37.118, IEC 61968, IEC

61970, IEC 61970-6 are relevant to ensure data

protection, synchronization of measurement systems,

standardization of interfaces between different

information systems and infrastructures [75-76-77-

78-79-80].

3 Some of the Smart Meters deployed around

the world

Today, new players are emerging in the smart meter

field as technology evolves and new markets

develop. According to the American Smart Meter

Manufacturers Association, there are several major

manufacturers deploying smart meters worldwide.

These manufacturers produce a range of smart meters

for different applications, and operate on a global

scale to meet the needs of power companies, utilities

and governments. Their meters comply with ANSI

and/or IEC standards [81]. A list of smart meter

models from these manufacturers, currently in use by

various utilities, is given in the table.

Table 2, Some of the Smart Meters deployed around

the world.

In recent years, the growing demand for smarter,

more efficient energy solutions has led to an increase

in the production of smart meters by many companies

around the world. These smart meters are designed to

offer advanced functionalities such as accurate

measurement of energy consumption, two-way

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communication, real-time monitoring and remote

energy management. Depending on their different

applications and voltage ratings, these meters are

classified into two types of application: residential

smart meters and industrial smart meters. Below, we

describe some of the smart meters currently on the

market.  General Electric (GE)

GE offers a range of meters designed for residential

and industrial applications, complying with both

ANSI (American National Standard Institute) and

IEC (International Electronic Commission)

standards.

 For ANSI residential meters, we offer the I-210

series and the GE KV2c series. The I-210 series

consists of single-phase electronic meters in three

models: I-210 +c; I-210+ and I-210. This series

covers almost all metering needs, from the invention

of energy-only electronic meters to the emergence of

highly flexible smart meters. This series offers a

number of advantages, such as Plugand-Play

AMR/AMI functionality, and several

communications technologies linked to AMI systems

for real-time data transmission [82].

 For ANSI standard industrial meters, we offer the

KV2c family, comprising two models, KV2c and

KV2c+. This family offers key benefits such as

AMR/AMI Plug-and-Play designed to adapt to RF,

PLC, GSM, GPRS, Ethernet. It also features

functions for recording voltage, current, energy,

apparent power, reactive power, power distortion,

power factor, etc.

 For IEC smart meters, the SGM3000 series is the

most popular meter series with advanced features. It

contains eight series meters designed for both

residential and commercial demand, including

single-phase and polyphase meters. The SGM3000

suite offers key benefits such as improved energy

efficiency from utility to home, extended relay and

multi-element configurations for application

flexibility [83].

 Itron smart meters are based on industry

standards and offer unprecedented interval data

storage, remote upgrading and configuration

changes, and a gateway to consumer smart devices.

They provide the two-way communications

customers need to build their advanced metering

infrastructure. For example, the Itron CENTRON

OpenWay smart meter offers enhanced security and a

reliable approach to data collection and

communications between the smart meter and the

network system [84]. Usage data processing and

calculation takes place at the meter level, enabling

utilities to exploit time-based tariffs, demand

response and other smart grid applications. This type

of meter offers distinctive features such as a license-

free, bidirectional RF module, ZigBee

communication for interfacing with home networks,

and a remote service switch relay to support certain

functionalities such as prepaid metering [85][86].

 Sensus supplies the ICON series of smart meters,

comprising the ICON A and ICON APX models,

enabling residential and industrial consumers to

deliver accurate, reliable results. In combination with

the advanced FlexNet meter infrastructure, utilities

can install and upgrade the ICON meter's electricity

management platform for significant efficiency [87].

ICON meters offer a reliable, simple system with a

number of key benefits: power quality reporting,

accuracy that exceeds ANSI C12.20, inversion

resistance, advanced, user-friendly configuration

software [88].

4 Conclusion

In this article we have reviewed and discussed the

evolution of the smart energy metering system; the

meters, the data management system, the

communication system, communications standards

and protocols. Examination of various smart

metering system solutions indicates that most

solutions are versatile and have many common

functionalities; however, implementation of these

functionalities depends on utility requirements.

Among the various functionalities, real-time two-

way communication and the data management

system proved to be the two key features, benefiting

both consumers and utilities. Interoperability

between utilities requires that meters be designed to

collect data according to certain standards and

protocols. We have presented a smart grid

architecture by examining the standards and

protocols. We have presented a smart grid

architecture, examining the standards and protocols

that ensure the interoperability, safety and reliability

of energy management systems. Furthermore, as the

CEER (Council of European Energy Regulators),

ANSI and IEC point out, despite many years of

standards evaluation, the world is still facing a

difficult situation due to the lack of a common

standard for smart meter interoperability. This

situation complicates the involvement of

multinationals in certain markets, due to the

imposition of local manufacturing standards. Data

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protection and security issues also need to be

addressed. Not all technologies offer the same levels

of security, and this needs to be addressed. A precise

framework needs to be assessed, and the protection

of personal data must remain a central concern in the

development of standards and protocols. What's

more, most communication networks use low to

medium bandwidths, so high levels of data traffic

result in an inefficient system. This communications

system can also be subject to interference: wireless

communications are subject to interference from

transmitting devices in the environment. Despite the

savings resulting from smart metering systems, most

utilities are becoming reluctant to invest in the new

systems on the market. For example, the

implementation and maintenance costs of smart

metering systems are often high, which may

discourage some utilities from adopting them. In

addition to the high cost, smart metering systems

require a good technical understanding and specific

skills for their installation and (technical

complexity). This can be an obstacle for companies

that do not have these skills in-house.

AI tools for text enhancement

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and correcting grammatical, stylistic and structural

errors. Reformulate expressions to create an

alternative version.

Perplexity: To explore recent trends and obtain

references from recent, properly sourced and

validated academic publications.

Deepl: To translate some texts in the article.

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